Uw.Cv^'^W^l^^^v 


^ 


^ 


.  \ 


— / 


THE   NEW 

Composition- Rhetoric 

EWion  of  1911 


BY 
ERED   NEWTON   SCOTT 

PROFESSOR    OF    RPIETORIC    IN    THE    UNIVERSITY    OF    MICHIGAN 
AND 

JOSEPH   VILLIEES   DENNEY 

PROFESSOR    OF    ENGLISH    IN    OHIO    STATE    UNIVERSITY 


jXKt 


A  LLYN    AND    BACON 


COPYRIGHT,  1911,  BY 
FRED  N.  SCOTT  AND 
JOSEPH    V.    DENNEY. 


ODE 


J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE. 

This  book,  now  entirely  rewritten  and  greatly  enlarged, 
embodies  all  those  features  of  former  editions  of  the 
Composition-Ehetoric  and  Composition-Literature  which 
in  class-room  use  have  been  found  most  successful  and 
most  attractive.  Of  these  features  the  following  are  per- 
haps the  most  important :  — 

Composition  is  regarded  as  a  social  act,  and  the  student 
is  therefore  constantly  led  to  think  of  himself  as  writing 
or  speaking  for  a  specified  audience.  Thus  not  mere  ex- 
pression but  communication  as  well  is  made  the  business 
of  composition. 

The  simple  fundamental  principles  that  underlie  alike 
composition,  rhetoric,  and  literature  are  discovered  induc- 
tively by  the  study  of  numerous  selections,  and  when 
discovered  are  at  once  applied  in  the  student's  practice. 

The  aim  is  to  keep  the  student's  powers  of  construction 
and  criticism  in  proper  adjustment.  While  his  chief  pur- 
pose is  to  produce  something  readable,  interesting,  and 
perhaps  valuable,  he  is  led  to  consider  questions  of  form 
at  the  same  time.  The  effect  of  such  criticism  by  the  text, 
if  it  is  properly  supplemented  by  the  teacher's  suggestions, 
is  to  increase  in  each  student  the  power  and  the  will  to 
criticise  his  own  writings  before  giving  them  any  form  of 
publication. 

Experience  having  proved  that  concentration  on  a  smaller 
unit  than  the  essay  and  a  larger  unit  than  the  sentence 
is  conducive  to  the  best  results,  attention  is  drawn  first  to 
the  paragraph.     The  sentence,  phrase,  and  word  are  studied 

iii 


IV  PREFACE. 

as  structuml'  (^leniefntjs  of  the  paragraph  unit.  The  transi- 
tion to  essays  in  the  four  forms  of  composition  is  then  made 
v^itVi  C'onip*Ar^ttve'e5iae.^    * 

Other  features  of  the  book  are  believed  to  be  new  though 
they  are  not  untested :  — 

Composition  topics  are  drawn  not  only  from  literature 
and  student  life,  but  from  the  vocations  towards  which 
various  classes  of  students  are  naturally  tending.  The 
teacher  is  thus  enabled  to  take  advantage  of  a  powerful 
means  of  interest  and  incitement  in  making  assignments, 
and  to  consult  the  known  tastes  and  inclinations  of  the 
individual  student. 

In  the  study  of  the  paragraph,  attention  is  called  repeat- 
edly to  the  predication  made  by  the  topic  statement,  in 
order  that  students  may  learn  the  difference  between  gen- 
eral subject  and  immediate  topic.  This  is  one  of  the  logical 
features  of  composition  work  that  can  hardly  be  over- 
emphasized. Other  logical  aspects  of  composition  are  not 
neglected.  The  laws  of  association  of  ideas  are  presented, 
and  practice  is  afforded  in  the  logical  analysis  of  literary 
wholes  into  their  constituent  units. 

Especial  attention  is  paid  to  oral  argument,  and  explicit 
instructions  are  given  for  the  conduct  of  debates,  both 
formal  and  informal. 

In  conclusion,  the  authors  wish  to  make  here  a  general 
acknowledgment  of  indebtedness  to  the  teachers  who  have 
kindly  assisted  in  making  the  book  what  it  is  by  sugges- 
tions drawn  from  their  practical  experience. 

May,  1911. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  I.    Units  of  Composition. 

SECTION 


1. 

Preliminary  Assignments       .... 

1 

2. 

Independent  Units 

1 

3. 

Assignments  on  Independent  Units      .          . 

3 

4. 

Eelated  Units 

7 

5. 

Assignments  on  Related  Units  .... 
Chapter  II.    How  Compositions  Grow. 

11 

6. 

Introductory  ....... 

.       20 

7. 

How  to  plan  a  Composition  .         . 

21 

8. 

Assignments  on  Planning  a  Composition      . 

23 

9. 

How  to  group  Facts       .         .         . 

.       29 

10. 

Grouping  by  Association    .... 

.       29 

11. 

Grouping  by  Contrast  or  Antithesis  . 

30 

12. 

Grouping  by  Cause  and  Effect   . 

31 

13. 

Climax 

33 

14. 

Overlapping  Topics 

34 

15. 

Assignments  on  Grouping  Topics    . 

Chapter  III.     Paragraphs. 

35 

16. 

Introductory 

44 

17. 

Topic  Statement 

45 

18. 

Assignments  on  Topic  Statement    . 

45 

19. 

How  Paragraphs  Grow 

64 

20. 

By  Repetition    .         .     • 

64 

21. 

Assignments  on  Development  by  Repetition 

67 

22. 

By  Comparison  and  Contrast 

72 

23. 

Assignments   on    Development    by    Comparison    anc 

Contrast          ....... 

V 

75 

VI 


CONTENTS. 


24.  By  Particulars  and  Details         ....  85 

2o.  Assignments  on  Development  by  Particulars     .           .  87 

26.  By  Specific  Instances 93 

27.  Assignments  on  Development  by  Specific  Instances   .  95 

28.  By  Cause  and  Effect 99 

29.  Assignments  on  Development  by  Cause  and  Effect      .  100 

30.  Combination  of  Methods 106 

31.  Assignments  on  Development  by  Various  Methods  .  108 

32.  Means  of  Connection 117 

33.  Assignments  on  Means  of  Connection  .          .          .  119 


Chapter  IV.    Sentences. 


34.  Introduction 

35.  Complex  and  Compound  Sentences 

36.  Danger  of  Overcrowding 

37.  Long  and  Short  Sentences 

38.  Loose,  Periodic,  Balanced,  Sentences 

39.  Arrangement  of  Parts    . 

40.  Assignments ..... 

41.  Means  of  Connection 

42.  Assignments  on  Means  of  Connecting  Sentences 


125 
126 
126 
128 
130 
135 
138 
141 
146 


Chapter  V.    Words 

43.  Choice  of  Expression     . 

44.  How  to  Enlarge  your  Vocabulary 

45.  Will  and  Shall       . 

46.  Who,  Which,  That 

47.  Assignments  on  Choice  of  Words 


152 
153 
155 
156 
157 


Chapter  VI.    The  Forms  of  Prose  Discourse. 

48.  Kinds  of  Writing 168 

49.  Assignments  in  the  Kinds  of  Writing  ....      170 


CONTENTS. 


Vll 


SECTION 

50.  Combination  of  the  Kinds  of  Writing 

51.  Assignments  in  the  Combination  of  Kinds 


PAGE 

171 
172 


Chapter  VII.    Description. 

52.  The  Effect  of  Description      .  .         . 

53.  Assignments  on  the  Effects  of  Description    . 

54.  Kinds  of  Images 

55.  Assignments  on  the  Use  of  the  Concrete 

56.  Assignments  on  Kinds  of  Images 

57.  The  Point  of  View  .... 

58.  .   Assignments  on  Point  of  View  . 

59.  The  Order  of  Observation 

60.  Assignments  on  the  Order  of  Observation     . 

61.  The  Fundamental  Image 

62.  Assignments  on  the  Fundamental  Image 

63.  Number  and  Selection  of  Details  . 

64.  Assignments  on  Selection  of  Details    . 

65.  Assignments  in  Description  of  Voices 
QQ.  Assignments  in  Description  of  Sounds 

67.  Assignments  for  Details  of  Life  and  Movement 

68.  Sequence  and  Grouping  of  Details 

69.  Assignment  in  Sequence  and  Grouping 

70.  Miscellaneous  Assignments 


Chapter  VIII.    Narration. 

71.  Narration  and  Description     . 

72.  Assignments  in  Detecting  Narration    . 

73.  Effect  of  Narration 

74.  Assignments  in  the  Effect  of  Narration 

75.  Simple  Incident     .... 

76.  Assignments  in  Relating  an  Actual  Experience 

77.  Assignment  in  Narrative  partly  Invented 


VIU 


CONTENTS, 


78.  Complex  Narrative 

79.  Assignments  in  Supplying  the  Obstacle 

80.  Kinds  of  Obstacle 

81.  Assignnnents  in  the  Kind  of  Obstacle 

82.  Development  of  the  Plot 

83.  The  Beginning 

84.  Assignments  on  the  Beginning 
S5.  The  Middle       .         . .       .         . 

86.  Assignments  on  the  Middle  . 

87.  The  End 

88.  Assignments  on  the  Plot 

89.  The  Point  of  the  Story 

90.  Assignment  on  the  Point  of  the  Story 

91.  Character  and  Plot 

92.  Assignments  on  Character 

93.  Conversation  and  Dialogue  . 

94.  Assignments  on  Conversation  and  Dialogue 

95.  Kinds  of  Narrative 

96.  Miscellaneous  Assignments 

97.  A  Type  Study  in  Narration 


PAGE 

249 
253 
254 
254 
255 
255 
255 
257 
257 
261 
262 
265 
265 
267 
269 
274 
275 
278 
279 
292 


Chapter  IX.    Exposition. 

98.  The  Nature  of  Exposition    .         .         .         .  .301 

99.  Assignments  on  the  Nature  of  Exposition   .  .          .  303 

100.  Need  of  Exposition 305 

101.  Assignments  on  the  Need  of  Exposition      .  .          .  306 

102.  Common  Methods  of  Exposition  ....  310 

103.  Why  we  Fail  to  Understand         .  .         .         .,  310 

104.  Assignments  on  Failing  to  Understand        .          .          .  311 

105.  Connecting  New  Ideas  with  Old  ....  315 

106.  Assignments  on  Connecting  New  Ideas  with  Old  .           .  318 

107.  Logical  Definition 319 

108.  Assignments  in  Supplying  or  Narrowing  the  Genus       .  322 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


SECTION  PAGE 

109.  Assignments  in  Supplying  or  Completing  the  Differentia  322 

110.  Assignments  in  Abstracting  Definitions       .          .           .  323 

111.  Assignments  in  Correcting  Faulty  Definitions       .  •        .  325 

112.  Assignments  in  Definition  with  Explanations        .           .  325 

113.  Generalized  Narrative 328 

114.  Assignments  in  Generalized  Narrative        .           .           .  330 

115.  Comparison  or  Analogy        .....  331 

116.  Assignments  in  Comparison  or  Analogy      .          .           .  333 

117.  Reconciling  Contradictory  Ideas  ....  334 

118.  Assignments  on  ReconciHng  Contradictory  Ideas  .  336 

119.  Division 337 

120.  Assignments  in  Division  .....  339 

121.  Types  of  Expository  Writing       ....  341 

122.  A  Type  Study  in  Exposition        .         .         .         .343 

123.  Miscellaneous  Assignments  in  Exposition  .           .          .  349 

Chapter  X.    Argumentation. 

124.  I.    Simple  Argumentation  and  Informal  Debating  353 

125.  Assignments  on  the  Work  of  Argumentation        .           .  355 

126.  Argumentation  and  Exposition    ....  360 

127.  Description  and  ]S"arration  in  Argument      .         .  361 

128.  Assignments  in  the  Relation  of  Argumentation  to  Expo-  • 

sition,  Description,  and  Narration         .          .          .  362 

129.  The  Proposition .371 

130.  Assignments  on  the  Proposition         .          .           .           .  373 

131.  Arguments  for  the  Proposition  based  on  Perti- 

nent Facts 375 

132.  Assignment  in  Finding  Pertinent  Facts       .          .          .  375 

133.  Arguments  based  on  Pertinent  Circumstances     .  376 

134.  Assignment  in  Finding  Pertinent  Circumstances  .           .  376 

135.  Arguments  based  on  Specific  Instances        .         .  377 

136.  Assignment  in  Finding  Specific  Instances  .           .           .  377 

137.  Arguments   based    on    Principles,   Experiences, 

Authority        .......  378 


CONTENTS. 


SECTION 

PAGE 

138. 

Assignment  in  Finding  Principles 

.     379 

139. 

Arguments  based  on  a  General  Theory        .         .     379 

140. 

Assignment  in  Supplying  a  General  Theory          .           .      381 

141. 

How  a  Fact  or  a  Theory  becomes  an  Argument  .     381 

142. 

Assignments  in  Relating  Facts  and  Theories  to  Propo- 

sitions  ..... 

.     382 

143. 

Assignments  on  Arguments  for  the  Propos 

tion   .         .     386 

144. 

Tests  of  Arguments  for  Pertinence 

.     387 

145. 

Assignments  on  the  Test  for  Pertinence 

.     389 

146. 

Tests  of  Arguments  for  Strength 

.     392 

147. 

Assignments  on  the  Test  for  Strength 

.     394 

148. 

Tests  of  Arguments  for  Consistency 

.     398 

149. 

Assignments  on  the  Test  for  Consistency 

.     400 

150. 

The  Order  of  Arguments      . 

.     402 

151. 

Assignment  on  the  Order  of  Arguments 

.         .         .     403 

152. 

The  Brief 

.     403 

153. 

Miscellaneous  Assignments 

.     406 

II.    Formal  Debate 

.     408 

154. 

Argumentation  and  Debate . 

.     408 

155. 

Debatable  Propositions 

.     413 

156. 

Preparation  of  Material 

.     414 

157. 

The  Main  Issues  and  the  Trial  Brief 

.     416 

158. 

Division  of  Labor 

.     416 

159. 

Team  Work      .... 

.     417 

160. 

Individual  Practice  . 

.     418 

161. 

The  Second  Team         .... 

.418 

162. 

Practice  Debates 

Chapter  XI.    Poetry. 

.     418 

163. 

Introductory 

.     421 

164. 

Kinds  of  Poetry 

.     422 

165. 

Epic  Poetry      ..... 

.     422 

166. 

Dramatic  Poetry       .... 

.     425 

CONTENTS, 


XI 


167.  Lyric  Poetry ,         .  427 

168.  Didactic  Poetry 429 

169.  Assignments     .......  430 

170.  Versification 431 

171.  Assignments          .          .          .          .  .          .          .  438 


Chapter  XII.    Figures  of  Speech. 

172.  Definition     . 

173.  Classes  of  Figures 

174.  Figures  of  Imagery 

175.  Assignments  on  Figures  of  Imagery 

176.  Figures  of  Arrangement 

177.  Assignments 

178.  Figures  of  Contradiction 

179.  General  Assignments 


439 
440 
440 
446 
448 
449 
450 
452 


Appendix  A.     Directions  for  Written  Work       .         .  454 

Appendix  B.     Capitals  and  Punctuation    .         .         .  455 
Appendix  C.     Common  Faults,  with  Marks  used  in 

Correcting  Them      .         .         .         .  458 


Index 465 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

1.  Marley's  Ghost.     (F.  Barnard) 42 

2.  Marley's  Ghost.     (John  Leach) 43 

3.  John  Gilpin's  Ride.     (Stothard)   .         .         ..         .         .         .219 

4.  L'Alerte.     (Detaille) 220 

5.  Othello  telling  the  Story  of  his  Life.     (Becker)  .         .     285 

6.  Saved.     (Von  Roessler)        .         .' 287 

7.  Reading  the  Will.     (Becker) 288 

8.  Before  Paris.     (Von  Werner) 290 

9.  The  Conscripts.     (Dagnan-Bouveret)  .         .         .         .         .291 

10.  David  Copperfield  at  Peggotty's  House.     (H.  K.   Browne)  350 

11.  David  Copperfield  at  Peggotty's  House.     (F.  Barnard)       .  351 

12.  yEsop.     (Velasquez) 407 

13.  The  Martyr's  Daughter.     (A.  Baur) 409 

14.  Die  Priifung.     (Kaufmann) 410 


xu 


THE  NEW 
COMPOSITION  -  RHETORIC. 

CHAPTER   I. 

UNITS  OF  COMPOSITION. 

1.  Preliminary  Assignments. 

A.  1.  Make  a  list  of  the  books  and  poems  that  you  read  last 
year  and  in  vacation.  2.  Mention  some  that  you  particularly 
enjoyed.  3.  Why  did  you  like  them  ?  4.  Mention  some  that  you 
did  not  enjoy,  and  give  your  reasons. 

B.  1.  How  much  writing  have  you  done  in  the  past  year  ?  2.  Do 
you  enjoy  writing  ?  3.  Is  it  easier  than  it  used  to  be,  or  harder  ? 
Why  ?  4.  Mention  some  subject  that  you  are  especially  interested 
in. 

Independent  Units. 

2.  To  put  one's  thoughts  into  words  that  are  clear, 
orderly,  and  connected,  is  to  compose,  and  the  result  is 
called  a  composition. 

A  composition  may  consist  of  a  single  sentence,  a 
proverb  for  instance,  or  a  maxim,  or  an  item  of  news. 
It  may  be  completed  in  a  single  paragraph,  —  a  series 
of  sentences  that  belong  together,  or  a  sentence-group. 
It  may  require  for  completeness  a  number  of  these 
groups  or  paragraphs. 

1 


:2       ,  UNITS.   OF  COMPOSITION. 

But,  whether  complete  in  one  sentence,  in  one  paragraph, 
or  in  many  paragraphs,  the  composition  is  recognized  as  an 
independent  unit,  a  unit  because  it  is  all  about  one  theme 
or  idea  and  about  nothing  else ;  independent,  because 
of  itself  it  gives  a  meaning  that  is  complete  and  satis- 
fying.    The  proverb. 

Wine  is  a  mocker,  strong  drink  is  raging ;  and  whosoever 
is  deceived  thereby  is  not  wise  (Proverbs  xx.  1), 

is  an  independent  unit ;  and  so  is  the  following  brief 
composition  on  the  same  theme  :  — 

Who  hath  woe  ?  Who  hath  sorrow  ?  Who  hath  con- 
tentions ?  Who  hath  redness  of  eyes  ?  They  that  tarry 
long  at  the  wine ;  they  that  go  to  seek  out  mixed  wine. 
Look  not  thou  upon  the  wine  when  it  is  red,  when  it  giveth 
its  color  in  the  cup,  when  it  goeth  down  smoothly.  At  the 
last  it  biteth  like  a  serpent,  and  it  stingeth  like  an  adder. 
Thine  eyes  shall  behold  strange  things,  and  thine  heart  shall 
utter  froward  things.  Yea,  thou  shalt  be  as  he  that  lieth 
down  in  the  midst  of  the  sea,  or  as  he  that  lieth  upon  the 
top  of  the  mast.  TJiey  have  stricken  me,  shalt  thou  say, 
arid  I  ivas  not  hurt;  they  have  beaten  me  and  I  felt  it  not; 
when  shall  I  awake  f  I  will  seek  it  yet  again.  —  Proverbs 
xxiii.  29-35. 

The  same  theme  has  often  been  treated  on  a  much 
larger  scale,  in  sermons,  lectures,  and  stories. 

The  following  story  by  Thackeray  is  complete  in 
itself,  although  he  might  have  told  it  in  fifty  chapters:  — 

An  old  Abbe,  talking  among  a  party  of  intimate  friends, 
happened  to  say,  ^'  A  priest  has  strange  experiences ;  why, 
ladies,  my  first  penitent  was  a  murderer."  Upon  this,  the 
principal  nobleman  of  the  neighborhood   enters  the  room. 


INDEPENDENT   UNITS,  6 

"  Ah,  Abbe,  here  you  are ;  do  you  know,  ladies,  I  was  the 
Abbe's  first  penitent,  and  I  promise  you  my  confession 
astonished  him/' 

Evidently,  then,  it  is  not  any  particular  length,  or 
any  particular  number  of  sentences,  or  of  paragraphs, 
that  entitles  a  composition  to  be  called  an  independent 
unit.  It  is,  as  the  name  suggests,  (1)  its  ability  to 
stand  alone  and  to  yield  a  satisfying  meaning  without 
the  help  of  any  more  words  than  we  find  in  it;  and 
(2)  its  quality  of  unity,  which  implies  one  theme  or 
idea  to  write  about,  one  purpose  in  writing,  and  the 
exclusion  of  everything  irrelevant  to  the  theme  and 
purpose.  The  writer  who  would  give  to  his  compo- 
sition these  qualities  must  tell  enough  to  make  sure 
that  his  reader  will  understand  him,  and  must  keep 
out  of  his  composition  everything  that  is  not  connected 
with  his  subject  or  that  is  only  remotely  connected 
with  it. 

A  good  composition  is  about  one  subject  and  is  complete  in 
itself. 

3.         Assignments  on  Independent  Units. 

A.  Which  of  the  following  are  evidently  independent  composi- 
tions? Which  contain  words  indicating  that  something  must 
precede  or  follow  ?  Which  need  more  words  in  order  to  yield  an 
intelligible  meaning  ?  Can  you  in  any  case  suggest  what  the  new 
matter  should  be  ? 

1.    Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity, 

Which,  like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venomous, 
Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  head ; 
And  this  our  life,  exempt  from  public  haunt, 
Finds  tongues  in  trees,  books  in  the  running  brooks, 
Sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  everything. 


4  UNITS   OF  COMPOSITION, 

2.  The  Sphinx  was  so  mortified  at  the  solving  of  her  "rid- 
dle that  she  cast  herself  down  from  the  rock  and  perished. 

3.  Every  individual  has  a  place  to  fill  in  the  world,  and 
is  important  in  some  respect,  whether  he  chooses  to  be  so 
or  not. 

4.  One  of  the  illusions  is  that  the  present  hour  is  not  the 
critical,  decisive  hour.  Write  it  on  your  heart  that  every 
day  is  the  best  in  the  year. 

5.  From  scenes  like  these  old  Scotia's  grandeur  springs, 
That  makes  her  loved  at  home,  revered  abroad  : 
Princes  and  lords  are  but  the  breath  of  kings, 

<  An  honest  man's  the  noblest  work  of  God.'  —  Burns. 

6.  Three  Poets,  in  three  distant  ages  born, 
Greece,  Italy,  and  England  did  adorn ; 
The  first  in  loftiness  of  thought  surpass'd, 
The  next  in  majesty,  in  both  the  last. 
The  force  of  Nature  could  no  further  go ; 
To  make  a  third,  she  joined  the  former  two. 

—  Dryden. 

7.  Neither  let  mistakes  nor  wrong  directions,  of  which 
every  man,  in  his  studies  and  elsewhere,  falls  into  many, 
discourage  you.  There  is  precious  instruction  to  be  got  by 
finding  we  were  wrong.  Let  a  man  try  faithfully,  manfully, 
to  be  right ;  he  will  grow  daily  more  and  more  right.  It  is 
at  bottom  the  condition  on  which  all  men  have  to  cultivate 
themselves.  Our  very  walking  is  an  incessant  falling;  a 
falling  and  a  catching  of  ourselves  before  we  come  actually 
to  the  pavement !     It  is  emblematic  of  all  things  a  man  does. 

8.  Shortly  after  this  event,  the  city  of  Thebes  was 
afflicted  with  a  monster  which  infested  the  highroad.  It 
was  called  the  Sphinx.  It  had  the  body  of  a  lion,  and  the 
upper  part  of  a  woman.  It  lay  crouched  on  the  top  of  a 
rock,  and  arrested  all  travellers  who  came  that  way,  propos- 


INDEPENDENT   UNITS.  5 

ing  to  them  a  riddle,  with  the  condition  that  those  who  could 
solve  it  should  pass  safe,  but  those  who  failed  should  be 
killed.  Not  one  had  yet  succeeded  in  solving  it,  and  all  had 
been  slain.  (Edipus  was  not  daunted  by  these  alarming 
accounts,  but  boldly  advanced  to  the  trial.  The  Sphinx 
asked  him,  "  What  animal  is  that  which  in  the  morning 
goes  on  four  feet,  at  noon  on  two,  and  in  the  evening  upon 
three  ?  "  CEdipus  replied,  "  Man,  who  in  childhood  creeps 
on  hands  and  knees,  in  manhood  walks  erect,  and  in  old 
age  with  the  aid  of  a  staff." 

9.    Seven  cities  claim  old  Homer  dead 

Through  which  the  living  Homer  begged  his  bread. 

B.  Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  a 
satisfactory  meaning. 

1.  Good  manners  do  not  require  lying,  for  .  .  . 

2.  A  dog,  after  plunging  into  a  river,  comes  out  wet  to 
the  skin,  but  the  fur  of  a  beaver  or  a  mink  .   .  . 

3.  The  chief  value  and  virtue  of  money  consists  in  its 
having  power  over  human  beings ;  without  this  power  large 
material  possessions  are  useless,  and  to  any  person  possess- 
ing such  power,  comparatively  unnecessary.     But  .  .  . 

4.  The  humblest  mechanic  now  wields  a  mightier  power^ 
by  means  of  machinery,  than  the  kings  and  queens  of  an- 
tiquity ever  exerted,  and  a  factory  boy  can  perform  a  task 
that  would  have  startled  Greece  and  Rome  as  a  miracle  of 
skilful  strength.     Admit  all  this  ;  bat  .  .  . 

C.  Tell  in  your  own  words  the  best  anecdote  you  remember 
ever  to  have  heard  or  read.  Examine  it  carefully  to  see  if  it  has. 
unity  and  is  complete  in  itself. 

D.  What  is  the  main  idea  of  the  following  poem?  Try  re- 
ducing it  to  a  single  sentence  such  as  might  be  inscribed  on  a. 
banner. 


UNITS   OF  COMPOSITION, 


Old  Ireland. 


Far  hence,  amid  an  isle  of  wondrous  beauty, 
Crouching  over  a  grave,  an  ancient,  sorrowful  mother, 
Once   a   queen — now   lean   and  tatter'd  —  seated   on   the 

ground, 
Her  old  white  hair  drooping  dishevel'd  round  her  shoulders  ; 
At  her  feet  fallen  an  unused  royal  harp, 
Long  silent  —  she,  too,  long  silent  —  mourning  her  shrouded 

hope  and  heir ; 
Of  all  the  earth  her  heart  most  full  of  sorrow,  because  most 

full  of  love. 
Yet  a  word,  ancient  mother ; 
You  need  crouch  there  no  longer  on  the  cold  ground,  with 

forehead  between  your  knees ; 
O  you  need  not  sit  there,  veiled  in  your  old  white  hair,  so 

dishevel'd ; 
For  know  you,  the  one  you  mourn  is  not  in  that  grave ; 
It  was  an  illusion  —  the  heir,  the  son  you  love,  was   not 

really  dead; 
The  Lord  is  not  dead  —  he  is  risen  again,  young  and  strong, 

in  another  country ; 
Even  while  you  wept  there  by  your  f all'n  harp  by  the  grave, 
What  you  wept  for,  was  translated,  pass'd  from  the  grave. 
The  wind  favor'd,  and  the  sea  sail'd  it. 
And  now  with  rosy  and  new  blood. 
Moves  to-day  in  a  new  country.  —  Whitman. 

E.  The  following,  from  The  Voiage  and  Travaile  of  Sir  John 
Maundeville,  shows  what  written  English  prose  was  like  in  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Read  it  aloud  and  see  how 
much  of  it  you  can  understand.  Then  reread  with  the  help  of  the 
footnotes.  After  you  are  sure  that  you  understand  it  all,  transform 
it  into  the  more  condensed  modern  English  idiom,  noticing  where  and 
how  you  have  condensed  the  original.  Imagine  j'^ourself  a  present- 
day  tourist  telling  these  astonishing  things  to  a  group  of  open- 


BELATED    UNITS.  1 

mouthed    neighbors.      The   country   referred   to   is    "Caldilhe" 
(Chaldea). 

And  there  groweth  a  maner  of  fruyt,  as  though  it  weren 
gowrdes :  and  whan  thei  ben  ^  lype,  men  kutten  hem  ^  a-to 
and  men  fynden  with-inne  a  lytylle  best,^  in  flesch,  in  bon 
and  blode,  as  though  it  were  a  lytille  lomb  with-outen  wolle. 
And  men  eten  bothe  the  fruit  and  the  bCvSt :  and  that  is  a  gret 
merveylle.  Of  that  frute  I  have  eten  ;  alle-though  it  were 
wondirfulle  :  but  that  I  knowe  wel,  that  God  is  merveyllous 
in  his  workes.  And  natheless  I  tolde  hem  of  als*  gret  a 
merveyle  to  hem,  that  is  amonges  us :  and  that  was  of  the 
Bernakes.^  For  I  tolde  hem,  that  in  oure  contree  weren 
trees,  that  baren  a  fruyt,  that  becomen  briddes  ^  fleeynge : 
and  tho  ^  that  fellen  in  the  water,  ly ven ;  and  thei  that  fallen 
on  the  erthe,  dyen  anon  :  and  thei  ben  right  gode  to  mannes 
mete.  And  here-of  had  thei  als  gret  mervaylle,  that  summe 
of  hem  trowed,  it  were  an  impossible  thing  to  be. 

In  that  contre  ben  longe  apples,  of  gode  savour  ;  where-of 
ben  mo^  than  an.c.  in  a  clustre,  and  als  mayne  in  another: 
and  thei  han^  grete  longe  leves  and  large,  of  .ij.  fote  long  or 
more.  And  in  that  contree,  and  in  other  contrees  there 
abouten,  growen  many  trees,  that  beren  clowe-gylofres  ^°  and 
notemuges,^^  and  grete  notes  of  Ynde,  and  of  Canelle^^  and 
of  many  other  spices.  And  there  ben  vynes  that  beren  so 
grete  grapes,  that  a  strong  man  shoulde  have  enow  to  done 
for  to  here  o  ^^  cluster  with  alle  the  grapes. 

Related  Units. 

4.  Not  only  is  a  composition  as  a  whole  a  unit,  but 
if  we  separate  it  into  its  parts  and  examine  each  part, 
we  shall  discover  that  it  is  made  up  of  smaller  units.     If 

1  are    ^  beast    ^  barnacles,  limpets    "^  those  ^  have    ii  nutmegs  ^^  one 

2  them  ^  as         ^  birds  ^  more  ^^  cloves  ^^  cinnamon 


8  UNITS   OF  COMPOSITION, 

it  is  a  sentence,  it  is  made  up  of  words.  If  it  is  a  para- 
graph, it  is  made  up  of  sentences.  If  it  is  an  essay, 
it  is  made  up  of  paragraphs. 

Still  further,  each  of  these  small  units,  which  together 
make  up  the  whole  composition,  is  related  to  all  of  the 
other  units  in  a  reasonable  and  necessary  -way.  EaCh  has 
its  part  to  perform  in  the  service  of  the  whole.  Just  as 
the  hand  must  do  its  peculiar  work  in  helping  the  body, 
just  as  each  finger  must  do  its  peculiar  work  in  helping  the 
hand,  so  must  each  paragraph  play  its  peculiar  part  in 
the  whole  composition,  and  so  must  each  sentence  play 
its  part  in  the  paragraph.  Each  sentence  is  somehow 
necessary  to  every  other  sentence,  and  each  paragraph 
to  every  other  paragraph.  All  combine  to  make  the 
meaning  of  the  larger  unit  complete  and  satisfying. 

It  follows  that  in  any  good  composition  no  one  of 
the  smaller  units  can  be  taken  out  without  disturbing 
the  connection  or  removing  some  necessary  part  of  the 
larger  unit. 

Thus  in  the  composition  from  Proverbs  quoted  on 
page  2,  we  find  twelve  sentences,  each  of  which  requires 
the  help  of  others  in  order  to  make  the  meaning  clear. 
Not  one  sentence  of  them  all  gives  the  complete  mean- 
ing by  itself.  The  fifth  sentence  answers  the  questions 
asked  in  the  first  four  ;  the  sixth  gives  personal  advice 
which  naturally  follows  from  what  is  said  in  the  five 
preceding  sentences  ;  and  the  rest  of  the  composition 
shows  why  the  advice  should  be  heeded.  None  can  be 
taken  out  and  none  can  be  added.  These  are  called 
related  sentences  because  they  stand  in  a  reasonable  and 
necessary  relation  to  one  another  and  to  the  thought 
expressed  by  the  whole  composition. 


RELATED    UNITS.  9 

Examine  now  the  paragraphs  of  the  following  com- 
position:— 

1.  Mr.  Lincoln's  early  athletic  struggle  with  Jack  Arm- 
strong, the  representative  man  of  the  ^'  Clary's  Grove  Boys/' 
will  be  remembered.  From  the  moment  of  this  struggle, 
which  Jack  agreed  to  call  "  a  drawn  battle,"  in  consequence 
of  his  own  foul  play,  they  became  strong  friends.  Jack 
would  fight  for  Mr.  Lincoln  at  any  time,  and  would  never 
hear  him  spoken  against.  Indeed,  there  were  times  when 
young  Lincoln  made  Jack's  cabin  his  home,  and  here  Mrs. 
Armstrong,  a  most  womanly  person,  learned  to  respect  the 
rising  man. 

2.  There  was  no  service  to  which  she  did  not  make  her 
guest  abundantly  welcome,  and  he  never  ceased  to  feel  the 
tenderest  gratitude  for  her  kindness.  At  length  her  husband 
died,  and  she  became  dependent  upon  her  sons.  The  oldest 
of  these,  while  in  attendance  upon  a  camp-meeting,  found 
himself  involved  in  a  mMee  which  resulted  in  the  death  of  a 
young  man,  and  young  Armstrong  was  charged  by  one  of 
his  associates  with  striking  the  fatal  blow.  He  was  arrested, 
examined,  and  imprisoned  to  await  his  trial.  The  public 
mind  was  in  a  blaze  of  excitement,  and  interested  parties 
fed  the  flame. 

3.  Mr.  Lincoln  knew  nothing  of  the  merits  of  this  case ; 
that  is  certain.  He  only  knew  that  his  old  friend  Mrs. 
Armstrong  was  in  sore  trouble;  and  he  sat  down  at  once 
and  volunteered  by  letter  to  defend  her  son.  His  first  act 
was  to  procure  the  postponement  and  a  change  of  the  place 
of  the  trial.  There  was  too  much  fever  in  the  minds  of  the 
immediate  public  to  permit  of  fair  treatment.  When  the 
trial  came  on,  the  case  looked  very  hopeless  to  all  but  Mr. 
Lincoln,  who  had  assured  himself  that  the  young  man  was 
not  guilty. 


10  UNITS   OF  COMPOSITION. 

4.  The  evidence  on  behalf  of  the  state  being  all  in,  and 
looking  like  a  solid  and  consistent  mass  of  testimony  against 
the  prisoner,  Mr.  Lincoln  undertook  the  task  of  analyzing 
and  destroying  it,  which  he  did  in  a  manner  that  surprised 
every  one.  The  principal  witness  testified  that  by  the  aid 
of  the  brightly  shining  moon  he  saw  the  prisoner  inflict  the 
death-blow  with  a  slung-shot.  Mr.  Lincoln  proved  by  the 
almanac  that  there  was  no  moon  shining  at  the  time.  The 
mass  of  testimony  against  the  prisoner  melted  away,  until 
*'  Not  guilty  "  was  the  verdict  of  every  man  present  in  the 
crowded  court  room. 

5.  There  is,  of  course,  no  record  of  the  plea  made  on  this 
occasion,  but  it  is  remembered  as  one  in  which  Mr.  Lincoln 
made  an  appeal  to  the  sympathies  of  the  jury  which  quite 
surpassed  his  usual  efforts  of  the  kind,  and  melted  all  to  tears. 
The  jury  were  out  but  half  an- hour,  when  they  returned 
with  the  verdict  of  "  Not  guilty."  The  widow  fainted  in 
the  arms  of  her  son,  who  divided  his  attention  between  his 
services  to  her  and  his  thanks  to  his  deliverer.  And  thus 
the  kind  woman  who  cared  for  the  poor  young  man,  and 
showed  herself  a  mother  to  him  in  his  need,  received  as  her 
reward,  from  the  hand  of  her  grateful  beneficiary,  the  life 
of  a  son,  saved  from  a  cruel  conspiracy.  —  J.  G.  Holland. 

The  purpose  of  this  story  is  to  illustrate  a  phase  of 
Lincoln's  character.  Notice  how  each  paragraph  con- 
tributes to  this  end.  In  the  first  we  learn  of  Lincoln's 
friendship  for  the  Armstrongs  ;  in  the  second,  of  the 
charge  of  murder  against  young  Armstrong  ;  in  the 
third,  of  Lincoln's  coming  to  the  defence  of  the  accused 
man  ;  in  the  fourth,  of  the  trial;  and  in  the  fifth,  of 
the  result. 

The  parts  of  a  good  composition  are  related  one  to  another,  and 
to  the  whole  composition,  in  a  reasonable  and  necessary  way. 


RELATED  UNITS,  11 


5.  Assignments  on  Related  Units. 

A.  Read  the  following  account  of  a  cyclone  by  the  American 
naturalist,  Audubon.  Discover  its  main  divisions.  In  what  way 
is  each  main  division  related  to  the  preceding  and  the  following? 
What  lesser  divisions  do  you  discover  ?  How  are  these  related  to 
each  other?  Make  a  list  of  notes  and  catchwords,  such  as  you 
would  jot  down  if  you  had  to  reproduce  the  essay  orally. 

Various  portions  of  our  country  have  at  different  periods 
suffered  severely  from  the  influence  of  violent  storms  of 
wind,  some  of  which  have  been  known  to  traverse  nearly 
the  w^hole  extent  of  the  United  States,  and  to  leave  such 
deep  impressions  in  their  wake  as  will  not  easily  be  for- 
gotten. Having  witnessed  one  of  these  awful  phenomena, 
in  all  its  grandeur,  I  will  attempt  to  describe  it.  The  recol- 
lection of  that  astonishing  revolution  of  the  ethereal  element 
even  now  brings  with  it  so  disagreeable  a  sensation,  that  I 
feel  as  if  about  to  be  affected  by  a  sudden  stoppage  of  the 
circulation  of  my  blood. 

I  had  left  the  village  of  Shawaney,  situated  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ohio,  on  my  return  from  Henderson,  which  is  also 
situated  on  the  banks  of  the  same  beautiful  stream.  The 
weather  was  pleasant,  and  I  thought  not  warmer  than  usual 
at  that  season.  My  horse  was  jogging  quietly  along,  and 
my  thoughts  were,  for  once  at  least  in  the  course  of  my  life, 
entirely  engaged  in  commercial  speculations.  I  had  forded 
Highland  Creek,  and  was  on  the  eve  of  entering  a  tract  of 
bottom-land  or  valley  that  lay  between  it  and  Canoe  Creek, 
when  on  a  sudden  I  remarked  a  great  difference  in  the 
aspect  of  the  heavens.  A  hazy  thickness  had  overspread 
the  country,  and  I  for  some  time  expected  an  earthquake, 
but  my  horse  exhibited  no  propensity  to  stop  and  pre- 
pare for  such  an  occurrence.  I  had  nearly  arrived  at  the 
verge  of   the    valley,  when  I   thought   fit  to  stop   near   a 


12  UNITS   OF  COMPOSITION. 

brook,  and   dismounted   to   quench  the  thirst   which   had 
come  upon  me. 

I  was  leaning  on  my  knees,  with  my  lips  about  to  touch 
the  water,  when  from  my  proximity  to  the  earth,  I  heard  a 
distant  murmuring  sound  of  an  extraordinary  nature.  I 
drank,  however,  and  as  I  rose  on  my  feet,  looked  toward  the 
southwest,  where  I  observed  a  yellowish  oval  spot,  the  ap- 
pearance of  which  was  quite  new  to  me.  Little  time  was 
left  me  for  consideration,  as  the  next  moment  a  smart  breeze 
began  to  agitate  the  taller  trees.  It  increased  to  an  unex- 
pected height,  and  already  the  smaller  branches  and  twigs 
were  seen  falling  in  a  slanting  direction  towards  the  ground. 
Two  minutes  had  scarcely  elapsed,  when  the  whole  forest 
before  me  was  in  fearful  motion.  Here  and  there,  where 
one  tree  pressed  against  another,  a  creaking  noise  was  pro- 
duced, similar  to  that  occasioned  by  the  violent  gusts  which 
sometimes  sweep  over  the  country.  Turning  instinctively 
toward  the  direction  from  which  the  wind  blew,  I  saw,  to 
my  great  astonishment,  that  the  noblest  trees  of  the  forest 
bent  their  lofty  heads  for  a  while,  and,  unable  to  stand 
against  the  blast,  were  falling  into  pieces.  First,  the 
branches  were  ^broken  oif  with  a  crackling  noise ;  then 
went  the  upper  part  of  the  massy  trunks ;  and  in  many 
places  whole  trees  of  gigantic  size  were  falling  entire  to  the 
ground.  So  rapid  was  the  progress  of  the  storm,  that  before 
I  could  think  of  taking  measures  to  insure  my  safety,  the 
hurricane  was  passing  opposite  the  place  where  I  stood. 
Never  can  I  forget  the  scene  which  at  that  moment  pre- 
sented itself.  The  tops  of  the  trees  were  seen  moving  in 
the  strangest  manner,  in  the  central  current  of  the  tempest, 
which  carried  along  with  it  a  mingled  mass  of  twigs  and 
foliage,  that  completely  obscured  the  view.  Some  of  the 
largest  trees  were  seen  bending  and  writhing  under  the  gale ; 
others  suddenly  snapped  across;  and  many,  after  a  momen- 


RELATED  UNITS.  13 

tary  resistance,  fell  uprooted  to  the  earth.  The  mass  of 
branches,  twigs,  foliage,  and  dust  that  moved  through  the 
air,  was  whirled  onward  like  a  cloud  of  feathers,  and  on 
passing,  disclosed  a  wide  space  filled  with  fallen  trees, 
naked  stumps,  and  heaps  of  shapeless  ruins,  which  marked 
the  path  of  the  tempest.  This  space  was  about  a  fourth  of 
a  mile  in  breadth,  and  to  my  imagination  resembled  the 
dried-up  bed  of  the  Mississippi,  with  its  thousands  of 
planters  and  sawyers,  strewn  in  the  sand,  and  inclined  in 
various  degrees.  The  horrible  noise  resembled  that  of  the 
great  cataracts  of  Niagara,  and  as  it  howled  along  in  the 
track  of  the  desolating  tempest,  produced  a  feeling  in  my 
mind  which  it  is  impossible  to  describe. 

The  principal  force  of  the  hurricane  was  now  over,  although 
millions  of  twigs  and  small  branches,  that  had  been  brought 
from  a  great  distance,  were  seen  following  the  blast,  as  if 
drawn  onwards  by  some  mysterious  power.  They  even 
floated  in  the  air  for  some  hours  after,  as  if  supported  by 
the  thick  mass  of  dust  that  rose  high  above  the  ground.  The 
sky  had  now  a  greenish  lurid  hue,  and  an  extremely  sulphu- 
reous odor  was  diffused  in  the  atmosphere.  I  waited  in 
amazement,  having  sustained  no  material  injury,  until 
nature  at  length  resumed  her  wonted  aspect.  For  some 
moments  I  felt  undetermined  whether  I  should  return  to 
Morgantown,  or  attempt  to  force  my  way  through  the  wrecks 
of  the  tempest.  My  business,  however,  being  of  an  urgent 
nature,  I  ventured  into  the  path  of  the  storm,  and  after 
encountering  innumerable  difficulties,  succeeded  in  cross- 
ing it.  I  was  obliged  to  lead  my  horse  by  the  bridle,  to 
enable  him  to  leap  over  the  fallen  trees,  whilst  I  scrambled 
over  or  under  them  in  the  best  way  I  could,  at  times  so 
hemmed  in  by  the  broken  tops  and  tangled  branches,  as 
almost  to  become  desperate.  On  arriving  at  my  house, 
I  gave  an  account  of  what  I  had  seen,  when,  to  my  sur- 


14  UNITS  OF  COMPOSITION. 

prise,  I  was  told  that  there  had  been  very  little  wind  in 
the  neighborhood,  although  in  the  streets  and  gardens  many 
branches  and  twigs  had  fallen  in  a  manner  which  excited 
great  surprise. 

Many  wondrous  accounts  of  the  devastating  effect  of  this 
hurricane  were  circulated  in  the  country,  after  its  occur- 
rence. Some  log-houses,  we  were  told,  had  been  overturned 
and  their  inmates  destroyed.  One  person  informed  me  that 
a  wire  sifter  had  been  conveyed  by  the  gust  to  a  distance  of 
many  miles.  Another  had  found  a  cow  lodged  in  the  fork 
of  a  half-broken  tree.  But,  as  I  am  disposed  to  relate  only 
what  I  have  myself  seen,  I  will  not  lead  you  into  the  region 
of  romance,  but  shall  content  myself  with  saying  that  much 
damage  was  done  by  this  awful  visitation.  The  valley  is 
yet  a  desolate  place,  overgrown  with  briers  and  bushes, 
thickly  entangled  amidst  the  tops  and  trunks  of  the  fallen 
trees,  and  is  the  resort  of  ravenous  animals,  to  which  they 
betake  themselves  when  pursued  by  man,  or  after  they  have 
committed  their  depredations  on  the  farms  of  the  surround- 
ing district.  I  have  crossed  the  path  of  the  storm,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  a  hundred  miles  from  the  spot  where  I  witnessed  its 
fury,  and,  again,  four  hundred  miles  farther  off  in  the  state 
of  Ohio.  Lastly,  I  observed  traces  of  its  ravages  on  the 
summits  of  the  mountains  connected  with  the  Great  Pine 
Forest  of  Pennsylvania,  three  hundred  miles  beyond  the 
place  last  mentioned.  In  all  these  different  parts,  it  appeared 
to  me  not  to  have  exceeded  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  breadth. 

—  Audubon. 

B.  The  following  notes  are  from  a  book  of  manuscript  memo- 
randa kept  by  Charles  Dickens.  His  biographer,  Forster  (Life  of 
Dickens,  vol.  iii,  chap.  12),  tells  us  that  Dickens  used  these  notes  in 
one  of  his  novels.  From  these  notes  think  what  the  description  of 
the  house  will  be,  and  then  look  up  the  passage  in  Little  Dorrit  that 
describes  the  home  of  the  Barnacles. 


RELATED   UNITS.  15 


Our  House.  Whatever  it  is,  it  is  a  first-rate  situation, 
and  a  fashionable  neighborhood.  (Auctioneer  called  it  "  a 
gentlemanly  residence.'')  A  series  of  little  closets  squeezed 
up  into  the  corner  of  a  dark  street  —  but  a  Duke's  Mansion 
round  the  corner.  The  whole  house  just  large  enough  to 
hold  a  vile  smell.  The  air  breathed  in  it,  at  the  best  of 
times,  a  kind  of  distillation  of  Mews. 

C.  Suppose  that  you  were  permitted  to  make  just  four  notes 
by  which  to  recall  the  chief  contents  of  the  following ;  what  would 
they  be  ?  For  what  sentences  in  the  selection  does  each  of  your 
notes  stand?  Into,  what  four  successive  groups,  then,  may  the 
sentences  of  this  selection  be  divided  ? 

If  I  were  a  bird,  in  bij^^lding  my  nest  I  should  follow  the 
example  of  the  bobolink,  placing  it  in  the  midst  of  a  broad 
meadow,  where  there  was  no  spear  of  grass,  or  flower,  or 
growth  unlike  another  to  mark  its  site.  I  judge  that  the 
bobolink  escapes  the  dangers  to  which  I  have  adverted  as 
few  or  no  other  birds  do.  Unless  the  mowers  come  along 
at  an  earlier  date  than  she  has  anticipated,  that  is,  before 
July  1,  or  a  skunk  goes  nosing  through  the  grass,  which 
is  unusual,  she  is  as  safe  as  a  bird  well  can  be  in  the 
great  open  of  nature.  She  selects  the  most  monotonous  and 
uniform  place  she  can  find  amid  the  daisies  or  the  timothy 
and  clover,  and  places  her  simple  structure  upon  the  ground 
in  the  midst  of  it.  There  is  no  concealment,  except  as  the 
great  conceals  the  little,  as  the  desert  conceals  the  pebble, 
as  the  myriad  conceals  the  unit.  You  may  find  the  nest 
once,  if  your  course  chances  to  lead  you  across  it  and  your 
eye  is  quick  enough  to  note  the  silent  brown  bird  as  she 
darts  quickly  away ;  but  step  three  paces  in  the  wrong  di- 
rection, and  your  search  will  probably  be  fruitless.  My 
friend  and  I  found  a  nest  by  accident  one  day,  and  then  lost 
it  again  one  minute  afterward.     I  moved  away  a  few  yards 


16  UNITS   OF  COMPOSITION. 

to  be  sure  of  the  mother  bird,  charging  my  friend  not  to  stir 
from  his  tracks.  When  I  returned,  he  had  moved  two  paces, 
he  said  (he  had  really  moved  four),  and  we  spent  a  half  hour 
stooping  over  the  daisies  and  the  buttercups,  looking  for  the 
lost  clew.  We  grew  desperate,  and  fairly  felt  the  ground  all 
over  with  our  hands,  but  without  avail.  I  marked  the  spot 
with  a  bush,  and  came  the  next  day,  and  with  the  bush  as  a 
centre,  moved  about  it  in  slowly  increasing  circles,  covering, 
I  thought,  nearly  every  inch  of  ground  with  my  feet,  and 
laying  hold  of  it  with  all  the  visual  power  that  I  could  com- 
mand, till  my  patience  was  exhausted,  and  I  gave  up,  bafiSed. 
I  began  to  doubt  the  ability  of  the  parent  birds  themselves 
to  find  it,  and  so  secreted  myself  and  watched.  After  much 
delay,  the  male  bird  appeared  w^h  food  in  his  beak,  and 
satisfying  himself  that  the  coast  was  clear,  dropped  into  the 
grass  which  I  had  trodden  down  in  my  search.  Fastening  my 
eye  upon  a  particular  meadow-lily,  I  walked  straight  to  the 
spot,  bent  down,  and  gazed  long  and  intently  into  the  grass. 
Finally  my  eye  separated  the  nest  and  its  young  from  its 
surroundings.  My  foot  had  barely  missed  them  in  my 
search,  but  by  how  much  they  had  escaped  my  eye  I  could 
not  tell.  Probably  not  by  distance  at  all,  but  simply  by  un- 
recognition.  They  were  virtually  invisible.  The  dark  gray 
and  yellowish  brown  dry  grass  and  stubble  of  the  meadow 
bottom  were  exactly  copied  in  the  color  of  the  half-fledged 
young.  More  than  that,  they  hugged  the  nest  so  closely 
and  formed  such  a  compact  mass,  that  though  there  were 
five  of  them,  they  preserved  the  unit  of  expression,  —  no 
single  head  or  form  was  defined ;  they  were  one,  and  that 
one  was  without  shape  or  color,  and  not  separable,  except 
by  closest  scrutiny,  from  the  one  of  the  meadow  bottom. 
That  nest  prospered,  as  bobolinks'  nests  doubtless  generally 
do ;  for,  notwithstanding  the  enormous  slaughter  of  the  birds 
during  their   fall  migrations   by  Southern   sportsmen,  the 


RELATED     UNITS,  17 

bobolink  appears  to  hold  its  own,  and  its  music  does  not 
diminish  in  our  Northern  meadows. 

—  Burroughs,  Birds  and  Bees. 

D.  The  following  essay,  Of  Studies,  by  Lord  Bacon  (1561-1626) 
is,  like  all  of  his  other  essays,  greatly  condensed.  It  reads  like  a 
collection  of  notes.  Many  of  its  words  and  phrases  are  used  in  a 
different  meaning  from  that  which  we  attach  to  them  to-day. 
Suppose  you  wish  to  make  this  essay  perfectly  intelligible  to  a 
pupil  of  the  upper  grammar  grades,  who,  as  you  are  reading  it  to 
him,  stops  you  at  each  of  the  places  marked  by  the  little  numbers 
and  asks  for  an  explanation.  What  will  you  say  ?  Write  out  the. 
explanation  of  one  of  the  phrases,  using  just  such  language  as  you 
would  employ  in  talking  with  the  pupil. 

Studies  serve  for  delight,  for  ornament,  and  for  ability.^ 
Their  chief  use  for  delight,  is  in  privateness  ^  and  retiring ; 
for  ornament,  is  in  discourse ;  and  for  ability,  is  in  the  judg- 
ment and  disposition '  of  business.  For  expert '*  men  can  exe- 
cute, and  perhaps  judge  of  particulars,  one  by  one  ;  but  the 
general  counsels,  and  the  plots  and  marshalling  *  of  affairs, 
come  best  from  those  that  are  learned.  To  spend  too  much 
time  in  studies,  is  sloth;  to  use  them  too  much  for  orna- 
ment, is  affectation;  to  make  judgment  wholly  by  their 
rules,^  is  the  humor  of  a  scholar.  They  perfect  nature,  and 
are  perfected  by  experience:  for  natural  abilities  are  like 
natural  plants,  that  need  pruning  by  study ;  and  studies 
themselves  do  give  forth  directions  too  much  at  large, 
except  they  be  bounded  in  by  experience.  Crafty  men  con- 
temn ^  studies ;  simple  men  admire  them  ;  and  wise  men  use 
them :  for  they  teach  not  their  own  use  :  but  that '  is  a  wis- 
dom without  ^  them,  and  above  them,  won  by  observation. 
Read  not  to  contradict  and  confute ;  ^^  nor  to  believe  and  take 
for  granted ; "  nor  to  find  talk  and  discourse  ;  but  to  weigh 
and  consider.  Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be 
swallowed,  and  some  few  to  be  chewed  and  digested ;  that 


18  UNITS   OF  COMPOSITION. 

is,  some  books  are  to  be  read  only  in  parts  ;  others  to  be 
read  but  not  curiously  ;  ^^  and  some  few  to  be  read  wholly, 
and  with  diligence  and  attention.  Some  books  also  may  be 
read  by  deputy ,^^  and  extracts  made  of  them  by  others ;  but 
that  would  be  only  in  the  less  important  arguments/'*  and 
the  meaner  sort  of  books  :  else  distilled  ^^  books  are  like  com- 
mon distilled  waters,  flashy  ^^  things.  Reading  maketh  a  full 
man ;  conference  ^^  a  ready  man ;  and  writing  an  exact  man. 
And  therefore  if  a  man  write  little,  he  had  need  have  a 
great  memory;  if  he  confer  little,  he  had  need  have  a  pres- 
ent wit ;  ^*  and  if  he  read  little,  he  had  need  have  much  cun- 
ning, to  seem  to  know  that  he  doth  not.  Histories  make 
men  wise ;  poets,  witty ;  the  mathematics,  subtile ;  natural 
philosophy,  deep ;  moral,  grave ;  logic  and  rhetoric, ^^  able  to 
contend.  "  Abeunt  studia  in  mores."  ^°  Nay,  there  is  no 
stond  2^  or  impediment  in  the  wit,  but  may  be  wrought  ^^  out 
by  fit  studies;  like  as  diseases  of  the  body  may  have  appro- 
priate exercises ;  bowling  ^^  is  good  for  the  stone  and  reins ;  ^^ 
shooting  25  for  the  lungs  and  breast ;  gentle  walking  for  the 
stomach ;  riding  for  the  head  ;  and  the  like.  So  if  a  man's 
wit  be  wandering,  let  him  study  the  mathematics;  for  in 
demonstrations,  if  his  wit  be  called  away  ^^  never  so  little,  he 
must  begin  again :  if  his  wit  be  not  apt  to  distinguish  or 
find  differences,  let  him  study  the  Schoolmen  ;  ^^  for  they  are 
cymini  sectores :  ^^  if  he  be  not  apt  to  beat  over  matters,  and 
to  call  up  one  thing  to  prove  and  illustrate  another,  let  him 
study  the  lawyers'  cases :  so  every  defect  of  the  mind  may 
have  a  special  receipt. 

E.  Make  notes  for  an  essay  on  one  of  the  following  subjects 
(suggested  by  the  paragraphs  quoted  on  preceding  pages  of  this 
book)  or  on  some  other  subject  that  you  would  like  to  write  about. 
(1)  A  quiet  street.  (2)  Dangers  of  hunting.  (3)  My  best  friend. 
(4)  Habits  of  squirrels.  (5)  Work  to  do  in  a  garden.  (6)  An 
ideal  spot  for  a  home.     (7)  Uses  of  studying  literature.    Now  pick 


RELATED    UNITS.  19 

out  some  particular  person  for  whom  you  will  write  ;  consider  his 
age,  his  habits  of  thought,  his  way  of  looking  at  things.  Think 
of  the  best  means  of  interesting  him  in  the  subject  that  you  have 
chosen.  Reject  such  of  your  notes  as  will  not  be  suitable  for  the 
particular  person  you  have  in  mind.  Revise  the  other  notes  in 
order  the  better  to  adapt  them  to  this  person. 


CHAPTER   II. 

HOW  COMPOSITIONS  GROW. 

Introductory. 

6.  In  the  preceding  chapter  we  have  considered  the 
most  important  feature  of  a  composition.  We  have 
seen  that  every  good  composition  is  a  unit  made  up  of 
smaller  units  which  are  closely  related.  We  are  now 
to  consider  the  process  by  which  compositions  are  pro- 
duced. 

Compositions  do  not  come  into  the  mind  full-grown,  as 
Minerva  was  fabled  to  have  burst  from  the  brain  of 
Jupiter.  They  usually  have  very  humble  origins.  At 
the  start  a  composition  is  merely  a  vague  idea  of  something 
we  wish  to  write  about.  Whether  or  not  this  vague 
idea  will  develop  into  anything  better  depends  on  the 
way  in  which  we  treat  it.  The  beginner  treats  it  as  if 
it  were  the  completed  composition.  "  I  have  it !  "  says 
he,  as  soon  as  the  thought  enters  his  mind,  and  at  once 
he  sits  down  to  write  it  out.  We  all  know  what  happens. 
After  a  few  minutes  of  furious  pen-work  the  writer  sud- 
denly comes  to  a  dead  stop.  Where  has  the  idea  gone 
to?  A  moment  ago,  large  and  bright  and  beautiful, 
it  filled  his  whole  mind  like  a  lumiuous  fog-bank.  Now 
it  is  nowhere.  It  has  dissipated  in  the  process  of  writ- 
ing. 

The  experienced  writer  pursues  a  different  course. 
He   knows   that  this  first  vague  conception  is   worthless 

20 


HOW  TO  PLAN  A    COMPOSITION.  21 

unless  it  can  be  made  to  grow  into  some  definite  form. 
He  also  knows  that  the  way  to  make  it  grow  is  to  re- 
flect upon  it  long  and  patiently.  Instead  of  beginning 
to  write,  he  therefore  begins  to  ponder,  turning  the 
idea  over  and  over  in  his  mind  and  looking  at  it  from 
all  sides  and  from  various  angles.  As  he  does  so  the 
idea  grows  clearer.  It  separates  into  parts,  and  these 
parts  again  separate,  until  there  are  numerous  divisions. 
As  he  continues  to  reflect,  these  divisions  link  them- 
selves one  to  another  to  form  natural  groups,  and  these 
groups  arrange  themselves  in  an  orderly  way.  In  the 
end,  if  he  thinks  long  enough  and  patiently  enough,  he 
finds  that  the  first  vague  idea  has  taken  on  a  clear  and 
definite  form. 

How  to  Plan  a  Composition. 

7.  Thinking  a  vague  idea  out  into  its  natural  and  logi- 
cal divisions  and  arranging  these  divisions  in  an  orderly 
way  is  called  planning.  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  made 
himself  an  effective  writer  of  plain  prose,  has  described 
for  us  in  his  Autobiography/  his  method  of  planning  a 
composition. 

Preparatory  to  writing  a  composition  of  his  own, 
Franklin  would  first  set  down  brief  notes  and  hints  of 
his  observations  and  thoughts  upon  the  subject,  in  the 
order  in  w^hich  they  occurred  to  him.  Later  he  w^ould  re- 
arrange his  notes  according  to  some  plan,  discarding  those 
that  were  not  to  his  present  purpose,  and  combining  the 
remainder  into  groups.  He  would  put  into  one  group 
those  notes  that  were  most  closely  related  to  each  other 
because  they  had  to  do  with  one  part  of  his  subject,  and 
into  another  group  those  that  had  to  do  with  another 


22  HOW  COMPOSITIONS  GROW. 

part,  and  so  on.  Thus  he  kept  together  the  things  that 
belonged  together.  Finally,  he  would  decide  upon  the 
best  order  in  which  to  arrange  the  groups.  This  done, 
he  was  ready  to  write.  He  thought  that  this  prelimi- 
nary planning  was  economical,  because,  he  said,  "the 
mind  attending  first  to  the  sentiments  alone,  next  to  the 
method  alone,  each  part  is  likely  to  be  better  performed, 
and,  I  think,  too,  in  less  time." 

People  dift'er  much,  however,  in  the  amount  of  pre- 
liminary planning  which  they  find  it  necessary  to  put 
on  paper.  One  writer  will  need  to  set  down  in  his  out- 
line, not  only  the  main  topics  or  events,  but  also  the 
subordinate  topics,  all  carefully  ranked  and  quite  fully 
stated.  Another  will  manage  to  keep  his  thinking  and 
writing  orderly  with  the  aid  of  a  few  headings  or  sug- 
gestive questions,  planning  the  subordinate  topics  as  he 
writes.  A  reporter  whose  work  compels  haste  will  get 
along  with  a  half-dozen  catchwords  to  aid  his  memory. 
Each  w^riter  finds  out  by  experience  how  minute  he  needs 
to  make  his  written  plan. 

.  It  is  best,  however,  to  begin  by  making  the  preliminary 
planning  quite  thorough  and  complete.  The  advantage 
in  so  doing  is  that  it  keeps  us  thinking  about  ways  and 
means  of  expressing  ourselves  before  the  actual  writ- 
ing of  the  composition  begins;  it  enables  us  to  fore- 
see difficulties  in  our  proposed  arrangement  and  to  pro- 
vide against  them  by  modifying  our  plan  ;  and  it  reveals 
to  us  the  relative  importance  of  the  topics,  indicating 
what  parts  of  the  composition  will  require  greater  promi- 
nence and  space  by  reason  of  their  importance.  When 
these  things  are  not  thought  out  before  the  writing  be- 
gins, we  are  frequently  compelled  to  rewrite  from  the 


PLANNING  A   COMPOSITION.  23 

very  beginning  in  order  to  say  what  we  want  to  say. 
Thorough  planning  will  reduce  the  necessity  of  rewriting  to 
a  minimum,  though  some  rewriting  is  always  unavoidable. 

What  Bacon  said  in  his  essay,  entitled  Of  Despatch 
in  Business^  is  true  of  planning  a  composition.  "Above 
all  things,"  said  Bacon,  "Order  and  Distribution  and 
Singling  out  of  Parts  is  the  life  of  Despatch ;  So  as  the 
Distribution  be  not  too  subtile.  For  he  that  doth  not 
divide  will  never  enter  well  into  Business  ;  and  he  that 
divideth  too  much  will  never  come  out  of  it  clearly." 
As  Bacon  indicates,  the  plan  should  be  simple  and 
natural,  and  the  divisions  of  the  subject  clear  and  well- 
marked. 

Think  before  you  write.    Make  an  orderly  and  simple  plan. 

8.     Assignments  on  Planning  a  Composition. 

A.  The  following  are  a  pupil's  rough  notes  on  the  first  part  of 
Mark  Antony's  speech  in  Shakespeare's  Julius  Ccesar  (Act  III, 
Scene  II).  They  are  set  down  in  the  order  in  which  they  occurred 
to  him,  and  of  course  need  to  be  rearranged  and  grouped  so  as  to 
show  which  are  principal  ideas  and  which  subordinate.  Read  the 
speech,  and  then  from  these  notes  try  to  make  a  logical  plan  for 
writing  the  composition.  Add  any  ideas  of  your  own  about  this 
speech.  Should  any  of  the  notes  be  united  ?  Should  any  be  dis- 
carded because  they  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  speech  ?  After 
you  have  made  your  plan,  write  the  essay.  • 

1.  Meanings  of  the  word  "  honorable."  2.  Caesar  kind  to 
the  poor.  3.  Occasion-  of  the  speech.  4.  Opportunity  to 
arouse  sympathy  for  Csesar.  5.  Purpose  of  the  speech. 
6.  Adroitness  of  the  opening  words.  7.  Ways  'to.  which 
the  word  '^honorable"  may  be  uttered.  8.  Effect  on  the 
hearers.  9.  Antony's  character.  10.  Why  was  he  allowed 
to  speak?     11.   Comparison  of  Antony's  speech  with  that 


24  HOW    COMPOSITIONS    GROW, 

of  Brutus.     12.   Did  Caesar  wish  to  be  king  ?     13.    How  the 
speech  should  be  delivered  on  the  stage. 

Friends,  Romans,  countrymen,  lend  me  your  ears : 

I  come  to  bury  Caesar,  not  to  praise  him. 

The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 

The  good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones  : 

So  let  it  be  with  Caesar.     The  noble  Brutus 

Hath  told  you,  Caesar  was  ambitious : 

If  it  were  so,  it  was  a  grievous  fault, 

And  grievously  hath  Caesar  answer'd  it. 

Here,  under  leave  of  Brutus  and  the  rest, 

(For  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man. 

So  are  they  all,  all  honorable  men) 

Come  I  to  speak  in  Caesar's  funeral. 

He  was  my  friend,  faithful  and  just  to  me : 

But  Brutus  says,  he  was  ambitious ; 

And  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man. 

He  hath  brought  many  captives  home  to  Rome, 

Whose  ransom  did  the  general  coffers  fill. 

Did  this  in  Caesar  seem  ambitious  ? 

When  that  the  poor  have  cried,  Caesar  hath  wept : 

Ambition  should  be  made  of  sterner  stuff; 

Yet  Brutus  says,  he  was  ambitious ; 

And  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man. 

You  all  did  see,  that  on  the  Lupercal 

I  thrice  presented  him  with  a  kingly  crown, 

Which  he  did  thrice  refuse.     Was  this  ambition  ? 

Yet  Brutus  says,  he  was  ambitious; 

And,  sure,  he  is  an  honorable  man. 

I  speak  not  to  disprove  what  Brutus  spoke 

But  here  I  am  to  speak  what  I  do  know. 

You  all  did  love  him  once,  not  without  cause ; 

What  cause  withholds  you,  then,  to  mourn  for  him  ? 


PLANNING    A    COMPOSITION,  25 

0  judgment !     Thou  art  fled  to  brutish  beasts, 
And  men  have  lost  their  reason.  —  Bear  with  me ; 
My  heart  is  in  the  coffin  there  with  Caesar, 
And  I  must  pause  till  it  come  back  to  me. 

B.  In  his  Autobiography  Benjamin  Franklin  tells  us  of  an  exer- 
cise by  which  he  developed  his  skill  in  composition.  He  took,  he 
says,  one  of  the  papers  of  Addison's  Spectator,  and,  making  brief 
notes  of  each  sentence,  laid  them  aside  for  a  few  days.  Then, 
without  looking  at  the  book,  he  tried  to  complete  the  paper  again 
in  his  own  words.  Sometimes  also  he  jumbled  his  notes  into  con- 
fusion and  after  a  few  weeks  endeavored  to  bring  them  into  the 
best  order.  Following  his  method,  see  what  you  can  do  with  the 
set  of  notes  below.  The  first  nine  notes  are  in  the  order  of  the 
original  essay.  Notes  10  to  15  inclusive,  and  notes  16  to  21,  have 
been  thrown  into  disorder;  try  to  reduce  them  to  a  natural  and 
logical  arrangement.     Then  try  writing  the  whole  essay. 

The  Character  of  the  Indian. 

(Each  numbered  note  stands  for  one  sentence.) 

1.  A  stern  physiognomy.  2.  Ruling  passions  :  ambition, 
revenge,  envy,  jealousy ;  cold  temperament,  no  effeminate 
vices.  3.  Eevenge  an  instinct,  a  point  of  honor,  a  duty. 
4.  Pride  excessive.  5.  Loathes  coercion;  no  menial. 
6.  Love  of  liberty.  7.  Yet  a  hero- worshipper ;  especially 
war  heroes.  8.  Reverence  for  sages  and  heroes  ;  respect  for 
age,  cohesive  forces.  9.  Love  of  glory  a  passion ;  even 
dares  torture  and  death. 

10.  His  warfare :  ambuscade  and  stratagem ;  never  joy- 
ous   in    attack    on    enemies.      11.    Unmirthful    in    feasts. 

12.  Generous    traits    offset     by     distrust     and     jealousy. 

13.  When  drunk  is  maudlin,  or  crazy.     14.    Though  brave, 
will  stab  secretly.     15.    Treacherous,  suspicious. 

16.  Icy  coldness  to  family  and  friends ;  grim  defiance  to 
torturing  enemies.      17.    Dignity   in   assemblies;    quiet   in 


26  HOW  COMPOSITIONS   GROW. 

social  life.  18.  Like  snow-covered  volcano;  wildfire. 
19.  Conceals  passions.  20.  ISTo  quarrelling  at  home  ;  solem- 
nity in  council.     21.    Self-control ;  discipline. 

C.  Make  a  list  of  the  topics  discussed  in  the  following;  then, 
without  reference  to  the  original,  write  out  in  your  own  words  the 
reasons  why  you  have  found  the  people  where  you  live  pleasant 
people. 

I  come  last  to  the  character  and  ways  of  the  Americans 
themselves,  in  which  there  is  a  certain  charm,  hard  to  con- 
vey by  description,  but  felt  almost  as  soon  as  one  sets  foot 
on  their  shore,  and  felt  constantly  thereafter.  They  are  a 
kindly  people.  Good  nature,  heartiness,  a  readiness  to 
render  small  services  to  one  another,  an  assumption  that 
neighbors  in  the  country,  or  persons  thrown  together  in 
travel,  or  even  in  a  crowd,  were  meant  to  be  friendly  rather 
than  hostile  to  one  another,  seem  to  be  everywhere  in  the 
air,  and  in  those  who  breathe  it.  Sociability  is  the  rule, 
isolation  and  moroseness  the  rare  exception.  It  is  not 
merely  that  people  are  more  vivacious  or  talkative  than  an 
Englishman  expects  to  find  them,  for  the  Western  man  is 
often  taciturn  and  seldom  wreathes  his  long  face  into  a 
smile.  It  is  rather  that  you  feel  that  the  man  next  you, 
whether  silent  or  talkative,  does  not  mean  to  repel  inter- 
course, or  convey  by  his  manner  his  low  opinion  of  his 
fellow-creatures.  Everybody  seems  disposed  to  think  well 
of  the  world  and  its  inhabitants,  well  enough  at  least  to  wish 
to  be  on  easy  terms  with  them  and  serve  them  in  those  little 
things  whose  trouble  to  the  doer  is  small  in  proportion  to 
the  pleasure  they  give  to  the  receiver.  To  help  others  is 
better  recognized  as  a  duty  than  in  Europe.  Nowhere  is 
money  so  readily  given  for  any  public  purpose ;  nowhere,  I 
suspect,  are  there  so  many  acts  of  private  kindness  done, 
such,   for  instance,   as  paying  the   college   expenses   of  a 


PLANNING  A    COMPOSITION.  27 

promising  boy,  or  aiding  a  widow  to  carVy  on  her  husband's 
farm ;  and  these  are  not  done  with  ostentation.  People 
seem  to  take  their  troubles  more  lightly  than  they  do  in 
Europe,  and  to  be  more  indulgent  to  the  faults  by  which 
troubles  are  caused.  It  is  a  land  of  hope,  and  a  land  of 
hope  is  a  land  of  good  humor.  And  they  have  also,  though 
this  is  a  quality  more  perceptible  in  women  than  in  men,  a 
remarkable  faculty  for  enjoyment,  a  power  of  drawing  more 
happiness  from  obvious  pleasures,  simple  and  innocent 
pleasures,  than  one  often  finds  in  overburdened  Europe. 

As  generalizations  like  this  are  necessarily  comparative, 
I  may  be  asked  with  whom  I  am  comparing  the  Americans. 
With  the  English,  or  with  some  other  attempted  average  of 
European  nations  ?  Primarily  I  am  comparing  them  with 
the  English,  because  they  are  the  nearest  relatives  of  the 
English.  But  there  are  other  European  countries,  such  as 
France,  Belgium,  Spain,  in  which  the  sort  of  cheerful 
friendliness  I  have  sought  to  describe  is  less  common  than 
it  is  in  America.  Even  in  Germany  and  German  Austria, 
simple  and  kindly  as  are  the  masses  of  the  people,  the 
upper  classes  have  that  roideur  which  belongs  to  countries 
dominated  by  an  old  aristocracy,  or  a  plutocracy  trying  to 
imitate  aristocratic  ways.  The  upper  class  in  America  (if 
one  may  use  such  an  expression)  has  not  in  this  respect 
differentiated  itself  from  the  character  of  the  nation  at 
large. 

If  the  view  here  presented  be  a  true  one,  to  what  causes 
are  we  to  ascribe  this  agreeable  development  of  the  original 
English  type,  a  development  in  whose  course  the  sadness  of 
Puritanism  seems  to  have  been  shed  off  ? 

Perhaps  one  of  them  is  the  humorous  turn  of  the  Ameri- 
can character.  Humor  is  a  sweetener  of  temper,  a  copious 
spring  of  charity,  for  it  makes  the  good  side  of  bad  things 
even  more  visible  than  the  weak  side  of  good  things ;  but 


28  HOW  COMPOSITIONS   GROW. 

humor  in  Americafts  may  be  as  much  a  result  of  an  easy 
and  kindly  turn  as  their  kindliness  is  of  their  humor. 
Another  is  the  perpetuation  of  a  habit  of  mutual  help 
formed  in  colonial  days.  Colonists  need  one  another's  aid 
more  constantly  than  the  dwellers  in  an  old  country,  are 
thrown  more  .upon  one  another,  even  when  they  live 
scattered  in  woods  or  prairies,  are  more  interested  in  one 
another's  welfare.  When  you  have  only  three  neighbors 
within  five  miles,  each  of  them  covers  a  large  part  of  your 
horizon.  You  want  to  borrow  a  plough  from  one ;  you  get 
another  to  help  you  to  roll  your  logs ;  your  children's 
delight  is  to  go  over  for  an  evening's  merry-making  to  the 
lads  and  lasses  of  the  third.  It  is  much  pleasanter  to  be 
on  good  terms  with  these  few  neighbors,  and  when  others 
come  one  by  one,  they  fall  into  the  same  habits  of  intimacy. 
Any  one  who  has  read  those  stories  of  rustic  New  England 
or  New  York  life  which  delighted  the  English  children  of 
thirty  years  ago  —  I  do  not  know  whether  they  delight 
children  still,  or  have  been  thrown  aside  for  more  highly 
spiced  food  —  will  remember  the  warm-hearted  simplicity 
and  atmosphere  of  genial  good-will  which  softened  the 
roughness  of  peasant  manners  and  tempered  the  sternness  of 
a  Calvinistic  creed.  It  is  natural  that  the  freedom  of  inter- 
course and  sense  of  interdependence  which  existed  among 
the  early  settlers,  and  which  have  always  existed  since 
among  the  pioneers  of  colonization  in  the  West  as  they 
moved  from  the  Connecticut  to  the  Mohawk,  from  the 
Mohawk  to  the  Ohio,  from  the  Ohio  to  the  Mississippi,  should 
have  left  on  the  national  character  traces  not  effaced  even 
in  the  more  artificial  civilization  of  our  own  time.  Some- 
thing may  be  set  down  to  the  feeling  of  social  equality, 
creating  that  respect  for  a  man  as  a  man,  whether  he  be 
rich  or  poor,  which  was  described  a  few  pages  back;  and 
something  to  a  regard  for  the  sentiment  of  the  multitude,  a 


GROUPING  BY  ASSOCIATION.  29 

sentiment  which  forbids  any  man  to  stand  aloof  in  the  con- 
ceit of  self-importance,  and  holds  up  geniality  and  good 
fellowship  as  almost  the  first  of  social  virtues.  I  do  not 
mean  that  a  man  consciously  suppresses  his  impulses  to 
selfishness  or  gruffness  because  he  knows  that  his  faults 
will  be  ill  regarded ;  but  that,  having  grown  up  in  a  society 
which  is  infinitely  powerful  as  compared  with  the  most 
powerful  person  in  it,  he  has  learnt  to  realize  his  individual 
insignificance,  as  members  of  the  upper  class  in  Europe 
never  do,  and  has  become  permeated  by  the  feeling  which 
this  society  entertains  —  that  each  one's  duty  is  not  only  to 
accept  equality,  but  also  to  relish  equality,  and  to  make 
himself  pleasant  to  his  equals.  Thus  the  habit  is  formed 
even  in  natures  of  no  special  sweetness,  and  men  become 
kindly  by  doing  kindly  acts.  —  Bryce,  American  Common- 
ivealth,  Vol.  II,  pp.  664-667. 

How  to  Group  Pacts. 

9.  In  grouping  the  facts  for  a  composition  and  put- 
ting the  facts  in  order,  every  writer  instinctively,  if  not 
consciously,  tries  to  observe  some  principle  of  arrange- 
ment. He  brings  together  certain  topics  (1)  because 
they  are  closely  associated  in  thought,  or  (2)  because 
they  are  contrasted  one  with  another,  or  (3)  because  they 
are  related  as  cause  and  effect.  These  three  principles 
we  shall  now  consider  in  their  order. 

Grouping"  by  Association. 

10.  Often  in  setting  down  notes  for  a  plan,  we  bring 
two  topics  together  simply  because  one  suggests  the 
other  ;  the  topics  seem  to  touch  each  other  as  we  think 
about  them.  This  principle  of  arrangement  is  by  asso- 
ciation^ or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  contiguity. 


30  HOW  COMPOSITIONS   GROW. 

Arrangement  by  association  is  most  obvious  when  the 
topics  are  events.  Here  we  adopt  the  time  order,  be- 
cause in  that  order  the  events  are  naturally  connected. 
But  the  order  of  association  appears  almost  as  plainly 
when  we  are  preparing  to  write  about  objects  in  space. 
Here  we  plan  to  take  up  the  objects  one  after  another 
as  they  are  seen  by  the  spectator  :  first  the  most  conspic- 
uous objects  in  the  order  of  their  nearness  to  one  an- 
other, with  the  details  of  each;  then  the  less  conspicuous, 
in  the  same  order,  with  the  details  of  each.  The  details 
that  are  near  one  another  will  be  brought  in  so  as  to 
indicate  their  nearness. 

In  like  manner  ideas,  as  well  as  objects  and  events, 
are  often  arranged  on  the  principle  of  association  because 
they  are  felt  to  be  near  one  another.  One's  first  notes 
of  an  article  on  the  character  of  John  Quincy  Adams 
might  include  remarks  upon  :  (1)  his  industry,  (2)  his 
political  heroism,  (3)  his  conscientiousness,  (4)  his 
energy.  In  rearranging  these  before  writing,  one 
would  be  almost  certain  to  exchange  the  places  of  2  and 
4,  so  as  to  bring  the  topics,  industry  and  energy,  close 
together.  They  are  felt  to  be  closer  to  each  other  in 
thought  than  they  are  to  the  other  two  topics. 

Grouping  by  Contrast  or  Antithesis. 

•  11.  A  second  principle  of  arrangement  is  used  when  zc?ga« 
are  in  contrast  or  antithesis.  One  about  to  discuss  some 
of  the  characters  of  Scott's  Talisman^  and  having  made 
note  of  (1)  Richard's  frankness,  nobility,  impulsiveness, 
impatience,  haughtiness,  (2)  Berengaria's  childishness, 
capriciousness,  (3)    Saladin's  reserve,  shrewdness,   de- 


GROUPING  BY  CAUSE  AND  EFFECT.  31 

liberateness,  patience,  humility,  (4)  Edith's  maturity, 
firmness  —  would  in  all  probability  see  the  advantage 
of  adopting  an  order  that  would  bring  into  relief  the 
striking  contrast  between  Richard  and  Saladin  and  be- 
tween Berengaria  and  Edith,  as  well  as  the  contrasted 
characteristics  of  each  person  ;  thus  :  — 

A.  The  two  men  contrasted : 

1.  Richard  — 

(a)  Impulsiveness,  impatience,  haughtiness. 

(b)  Frankness,  nobility. 

2.  Saladin  — 

(a)  Deliberation,  patience,  humility. 
(h)  Reserve,  shrewdness. 

B.  The  two  women  contrasted : 

1.  Berengaria  — 

(a)  Capriciousness. 
(&)  Childishness. 

2.  Edith  — 

(a)  Firmness. 
(6)  Maturity. 

Grouping  by  Cause  and  Effect. 

12.  When  two  topics  are  related  to  one  another  as 
cause  and  effect,  it  is  well  to  bring  them  near  together  in 
the  plan.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  a  pupil,  about  to 
write  a  composition  on  The  Future  of  Aeroplanes,  sets 
down  the  following  notes  :  — 

1.  Aeroplanes  necessarily  made  of  fragile  materials. 
2.  Cannot  take  the  place  of  passenger  trains.  3.  Easily  de- 
stroyed in  time  of  war  by  explosive  shells.  4.  Large  per- 
centage of  aviators  killed  or  injured.     5.    Passenger  capacity 


32  HOW  COMPOSITIONS  GROW. 

very  limited.     6.   Cannot  carry  large  guns.     7.    Unable  to 
make  headway  against  storms.     8.    Of  little  use  in  war. 

On  looking  over  these  notes,  the  writer  sees  readily 
that  1  and  4  belong  together  because  the  fragile 
character  of  the  materials  is  the  main  cause  of  accidents. 
He  sees  also  that  5  and  7  should  precede  or  follow  2  be- 
cause 2  is  the  consequence  of  5  and  7.  Number  8  is 
also  a  natural  conclusion  from  3  and  6.  Rearranged 
in  accordance  with  these  ideas,  the  notes  will  read  as 
follows  :  — 

1.  Aeroplanes  cannot  take  the  place  of  passenger  trains. 
2.  They  are  made  of  fragile  materials.  3.  Accidents  are 
frequent.  4.  Their  carrying  capacity  is  small.  5.  They 
are  unable  to  make  headway  against  storms.  6.  They  are 
of  little  use  in  time  of  war.  7.  They  cannot  carry  large 
guns.     8.   They  are  easily  destroyed  by  explosive  shells. 

From  these  notes  an  outline  in  which  the  headings 
are,  in  the  main,  grouped  on  the  principle  of  cause  and 
effect,  can  easily  be  constructed.  The  following  will 
serve  as  an  example  :  — 

The  Future  of  Aeroplanes. 

A.  Aeroplanes  cannot  take  the  place  of  passenger  trains. 

1.  They  are  too  fragile. 

2.  There  are  too  many  accidents. 

3.  Their  carrying  capacity  is  too  limited. 

4.  Their  schedule  would  be  too  much  disturbed  by 

storms. 

B.  Aeroplanes  will  be  of  little  use  in  war. 

1.  They  cannot  carry  large  guns. 

2.  They  are  easily  destroyed  by  explosive  shells. 


CLIMAX.  33 

Climax. 

13.  Whether  topics  are  arranged  by  association,  con- 
trast, or  cause  and  effect,  the  writer  will  also  introduce 
climax  into  the  arrangement  wherever  this  is  possible. 
The  general  order  of  topics  will  be  from  the  less  impor- 
tant to  the  more  important. 

For  instance,  in  the  arrangement  of  topics  in  the  out- 
line below,  the  first  topic  is  put  first  because  it  is  con- 
sidered to  be  of  least  weight  in  the  argument ;  the  last 
topic  is  put  last  because  it  is  considered  to  be  of  most 
weight.  The  other  topics  are  also  in  the  order  of  their 
supposed  importance. 

Uses  of  Novel  Reading. 

1.  It  affords  relaxation  and  entertainment. 

2.  It  is  a  valuable  aid  to  the  study  of  history  and  geog- 

raphy. 

3.  It  gives  us  information  about  various  classes  of  society. 

4.  It  brings   about  reforms  in  law,  education,  politics, 

etc. 

5.  It  sharpens  our  insight  into  human  character. 

An  opportunity  for  introducing  climax  was  missed 
by  the  pupil  whose  plan  for  an  essay  on  the  persecution 
of  the  Jews  was  arranged  as  follows :  (1)  Bodily 
persecutions,  including  burning  and  massacre  ;  (2) 
Banishment ;  (3)  Deprivation  of  property,  by  confisca- 
tion and  by  destruction.  These  topics  should  have 
been  arranged  in  the  reverse  order  to  bring  out  the 
natural  climax  based  on  the  severity  of  the  persecutions. 

This  order,  however,  will  not  be  allowed  in  any  way 
to  interfere  with  the  arrangement  by  association,  con- 


34  HOW  COMPOSITIONS  GROW, 

trast,  or  cause  and  effect ;  it  will  appear  together  with 
those  wherever  possible. 

Overlapping  Topics. 
14.    One  caution  is  necessary.     The  topics  in  a  plan 
should  not  overlap.     The  following  plan  of  a  pupil's 
essay  on  Prejudices  against  High  SchoolAthletics  shows 
an  unusual  amount  of  this  overlapping  ;  — 

1.  Prejudices  of  those  who  think  that  only  a  few  benefit 
by  athletics.  2.  Prejudice  of  the  ^'  grinds."  3.  Prejudice 
of  those  who  fear  that  athletics  will  interfere  with  studies. 
4.   Prejudice  of  the  ignorant.     5.   Prejudice  of  the  parents. 

6.  Prejudice  of  those  who  think  too  much  time  is  spent  in 
athletics.     7.   I*rejudice  of  some  teachers. 

In  this  plan  (to  mention  only  the  clearest  cases)  topics 
1  and  2  overlap,  and  so  do  topics  2  and  3,  3  and  4,  3  and  5, 
6  and  7,  as  well  as  several  pairs  of  topics.  Since  some  prej- 
udices against  high  school  athletics  are  shared  by  parents, 
teachers,  and  pupils,  it  will  not  do  to  divide  the  subject  into 
topics  ^n  that  basis.  Topics  2,  4,  5,  and  7  will  have  to  be 
dropped,  and  the  principle  of  topics  1,  3,  and  6,  which  name 
specific  prejudices,  will  have  to  be  continued,  if  there  are 
other  specific  prejudices  represented  by  topics  2,  4,  5,  and 

7.  We  see  then  that  the  way  to  prevent  overlapping  is  to 

adopt  but   one   principle   of  division  in  stating  the  main 

topics. 

Sumraary. 

In  grouping  topics  observe  these  four  principles :  — 

1.  Plan  what  you  mean  to  write,  before  you  write  it. 

2.  Arrange  the  facts  in  a  natural  order  according  to  some  prin- 
ciple such  as  association,  contrast,  or  cause  and  effect. 

3.  Secure  climax  by  putting  the  more  important  facts  after 
the  less  important. 

4.  Avoid  overlapping  topics. 


GROUPING   TOPICS.  35 

15.  Assig-nments  on  Grouping  Topics. 

A.  In  the  following  discover  the  plan  and  write  it  out  fully. 
What  principle  of  grouping  is  most  often  employed  ?  Can  you  find 
cases  of  cause  and  effect  ?  Of  contrast  and  antithesis  ?  Upon  the 
same  plan  write  a  narrative  of  some  experience  of  your  own  or  of 
an  acquaintance. 

I  was  once  walking  in  the  streets  of  a  large  city,  in  which 
I  was  a  stranger,  looking  around  for  some  striking  exhibi- 
tions of  human  character  or  effort,  w^hen  I  saw  several 
persons,  of  apparently  low  rank  in  life,  standing  before 
the  door  of  what  was  apparently  some  public  building.  I 
thought  it  was  probably  a  court-hoitse,  and  that  these  were 
the  men  who  had  been  called  as  witnesses,  and  that  they 
were  waiting  for  their  turn  to  testify.  As  courts  are  always 
open  to  the  public,  I  concluded  to  go  in  and  hear  some  of 
the  causes.  I  walked  up  the  steps  and  entered  a  spacious 
hall,  and  at  the  foot  of  a  flight  of  stairs  saw  a  little  painted 
sign,  saying  that  the  court-room  was  above.  I  passed  up 
and  pushed  open  the  light  baize  door,  which  admitted  me  to 
the  room  itself. 

At  the  end  at  which  I  entered  there  were  two  rows  of 
seats,  one  row  on  each  side  of  an  aisle  which  led  up  through 
the  centre.  These  seats  seemed  to  be  for  spectators;  for 
those  on  one  side  were  nearly  filled  with  women,  and  those 
on  the  other  by  men.  I  advanced  up  the  aisle  until  I  nearly 
reached  the  centre  of  the  room,  and  then  took  my  seat 
among  the  spectators,  where  I  could  distinctly  hear  and 
see  all  that  passed.  Before  me,  at  the  farther  end  of  the 
room,  sat  the  judge,  in  a  sort  of  desk  on  an  elevated  plat- 
form, and  in  front  of  him  was  another  desk,  lower,  which 
was  occupied  by  the  clerk,  whose  business  it  was  to  make  a 
record  of  all  the  causes  that  were  tried.  There  was  an  area 
in  front  of  the  judge,  in  which  were  seats  for  the  various 


36  HOW  COMPOSITIONS  GBOW. 

lawyers ;  and  in  boxes  at  the  sides  were  seats  for  the  jury, 
who  were  to  hear  the  evidence,  and  decide  what  facts  were 
proved.  On  one  side  of  the  room  was  a  door  made  of  iron 
grating,  with  sharp  points  upon  the  top,  which  led,  I  sup- 
posed, to  an  apartment  where  the  prisoners  were  kept. 

Not  long  after  I  had  taken  my  seat,  the  clerk  said  that 
the  next  cause  was  the  trial  of  O.  B.  for  housebreaking. 
The  judge  commanded  an  officer  to  bring  the  prisoner  into 
court.  The  officer  went  to  the  iron  door  I  have  described, 
unlocked  it,  and  brought  out  of  the  room  into  which  it 
opened,  a  prisoner;  he  looked  guilty  and  ashamed;  his 
face  was  pale  —  not  as  though  he  was  afraid,  but  as  if  his 
constitution  had  been  impaired  by  vice.  They  brought 
him  into  the  middle  of  the  room,  and  placed  him  in  a  sort 
of  pew  with  high  sides,  and  shut  him  in.  He  leaned 
against  the  front  of  it,  looked  at  the  judge,  and  began  to 
listen  to  his  trial. 

The  clerk  read  the  accusation.  It  was,  that  he  had 
broken  open  an  unoccupied  house  once  or  twice,  and  taken 
from  it  articles  belonging  to  the  owner  of  the  house.  The 
judge  asked  him  if  he  pleaded  guilty,  or  not  guilty.  He 
said,  not  guilty.  The  judge  then  asked  the  jury  at  the  side 
to  listen  to  the  evidence,  so  that  they  might  be  prepared 
to  decide  whether  this  man  did  break  open  the  house 
or  not. 

Men  not  accustomed  to  speak  in  public  assemblies,  could 
not  easily  give  their  testimony  in  such  a  case,  so  that  it 
would  be  fully  understood  on  all  the  important  points.  In 
fact,  very  few  know  fully  what  the  important  points  are. 
Hence  it  is  proper  that  there  should  be  lawyers  present, 
who  can  ask  questions,  and  thus  examine  the  witnesses 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring  out  fully  all  the  facts  in  the  case. 
There  is  one  lawyer  appointed  by  the  government,  whose 
business  it  is  to  bring  to  view  all  the  facts  which  indicate 


GROUPING   TOPICS,  37 

the  prisoner's  guilt ;  and  another  appointed  by  the  prisoner, 
who  takes  care  that  nothing  is  omitted  or  lost  sight  of 
which  tends  to  show  his  innocence.  When  the  prisoner 
has  not  appointed  any  counsel,  the  judge  appoints  some 
one  for  him ;  this  was  done  in  the  case  before  us. 

The  first  witness  called  was  the  owner  of  the  house. 
It  is  necessary  that  each  witness  should  be  a  man  of  good 
character,  and  that  he  should  testify  only  to  what  he  saw  or 
heard.  No  one  is  permitted  to  tell  what  some  one  else  told 
him  ;  for  stories  are  very  likely  to  be  altered  in  repetition  ; 
so  that,  even  in  a  complicated  case,  each  man  goes  only  so 
far  as  his  own  personal  knowledge  extends.  And,  in  order 
to  be  sure  that  the  jury  shall  have  his  own  story,  he  is 
obliged  to  come  personally  into  court,  and  tell  the  story  in 
presence  of  all.  The  owner  of  this  house  was  probably  a 
man  of  business ;  and  a  great  deal  of  valuable  time  would 
have  been  saved  if  he  had  been  permitted  to  write  down 
his  account  and  send  it  in.  But  no :  every  witness,  where 
it  is  possible,  must  actually  come  into  court  and  present  his 
evidence  with  his  own  voice.  This  remark  it  is  important 
to  remember,  as  the  principle  will  come  to  view  when  we 
consider  the  other  case. 

The  witness  testified  that  he  owned  a  certain  house; 
that  he  moved  out  6i  it,  and  locked  it  up,  leaving  some 
articles  in  an  upper  chamber ;  that  one  day  he  went  in  and 
found  that  the  house  had  been  entered,  I  believe  by  a 
window,  and  that  the  chamber-door  had  been  broken  open, 
and  some  of  the  articles  taken  away.  He  said  that  he  then 
employed  a  watchman  to  sleep  in  the  house,  and  to  try  to 
catch  the  thief. 

Here  he  had  to  stop ;  for,  although  he  knew  how  the 
watchman  succeeded,  he  was  not  permitted  to  tell,  for  he 
did  not  see  it.  No  man  testifies  except  to  what  he  has  seen 
or  heard. 


38  HOW  COMPOSITIONS   GROW. 

The  watchman  was  next  called.  The  lawyer  for  the  gov- 
ernment asked  him :  — 

"  Were  you  employed  by  the  owner  of  this  house  to 
watch  for  a  thief  in  it  ?  " 

^'YeSj  sir." 

"  What  did  he  tell  you  when  he  engaged  you  ?  " 

"  He  told  me  that  his  house  had  been  broken  open,  and 
he  wished  me  to  watch  for  the  thief." 

^' Did  you  do  it  ?  " 

"  Yes,  sir." 

"Well,  relate  to  the  jury  what  occurred  that  night." 

"I  watched  several  nights.  For  some  nights  nothing 
occurred.     All  was  quiet  till  morning." 

'"  In  what  room  did  you  stay  ?  " 

"  In  the  room  under  the  chamber  from  which  the  articles 
had  been  stolen." 

"  Well,  go  on  with  your  account." 

"  At  last,  on  the  15th  of  June,  as  I  was  then  watching, 
about  three  o'clock  in  the  morning  I  heard  a  noise.  Some 
one  was  coming  softly  upstairs.  He  went  up  into  the  room 
over  my  head,  and  after  remaining  a  few  minutes  there,  he 
began  to  come  down.  I  immediately  went  out  into  the 
entry  and  seized  him,  and  took  him  to  the  watch-house. 
The  next  morning  he  was  put  in  prison." 

The  lawyer  then  pointed  to  the  prisoner  at  the  bar,  and 
asked  if- that  was  the  man.     The  witness  said  it  was. 

The  judge  then  asked  the  counsel  for  the  prisoner  if  he 
had  any  questions  to  ask,  and  he  did  ask  one  or  two,  but 
they  were  not  material.  The  jury  then  consulted  together, 
and  all  agreed  that  the  prisoner  was  proved  guilty ;  and  the 
judge  ordered  him  to  be  sent  back  to  prison  till  he  should 
determine  what  punishment  must  be  assigned. 

This  is  substantially  the  way  in  which  all  trials  are 
conducted.  —  J.  Abbott. 


GROUPING   TOPICS.  39 

B.  Make  a  plan  of  the  following  selection.  After  completing 
it,  notice  in  what  relation  to  each  other  the  different  topics  stand. 
Compare  your  plan  with  the  plans  made  by  other  members  of  the 
class. 

1.  There  was  a  time  when  the  American  mountain-lion 
was  one  of  the  most  formidable  animals  in  the  world.  The 
cat  is  the  masterpiece  of  nature ;  and  the  mountain-lion  was 
one  of  the  most  terribly  armed,  and  powerful  of  the  cat 
family.  It  was  a  compact  mass  of  hard  and  tough  muscle 
and  gristle,  with  bones  of  iron,  strong  jaws,  sharp  teeth, 
and  claws  like  steel  penknife-blades.  It  was  prodigiously 
strong,  lithe,  and  quick,  covered  with  a  mail-coat  of  loose 
skin  that  was  as  tough  as  leather.  It  had  the  temper  of  a 
demon,  and  was  insatiably  bloodthirsty.  Withal,  it  had  the 
proverbial  nine  lives  of  the  cat  tribe. 

Against  such  an  animal  it  was  hopeless  to  match  dogs. 
It-  was  said,  in  the  school-books  of  forty  years  ago,  that 
"three  British  mastiffs  can  pull  down  a  full-grown  Asiatic 
lion."  Perhaps  they  could ;  but  they  would  have  been  sorry 
if  they  had  tackled  a  full-grown  American  mountain-lion  of 
that  time.  He  was  not  to  be  "  pulled  down ''  by  anything ; 
and  if  he  had  been  "  pulled  down,"  that  was  exactly  the  posi- 
tion in  which  he  fought  best.  With  his  back  protected  by 
the  earth,  and  all  four  fearfully  armed  paws  flying  free, 
aided  by  his  terrible  teeth,  and  a  body  so  strong  that  it 
could  not  be  held  in  any  position  —  well,  when  he  was 
"  down  "  was  the  time  that  he  was  most  "  up." 

He  once  was  found  in  all  the  Eocky  Mountain  regions, 
from  the  jaguar-haunted  tropical  forests  of  the  extreme 
South  to  the  home  of  the  Northern  winter  blizzard; 
but  he  attained  his  greatest  size  and  ferocity  on  the  sub- 
tropical plateau  of  northern  Mexico,  New  Mexico,  and 
Arizona. 

These  animals  are  no  longer  what  they  were.     The  tourist 


40  HOW  COMPOSITIONS   GROW, 

or  hunter  of  to-day  cannot  hope  to  find  any  of  the  old-time 
power  or  ferocity. 

C.  Rearrange  the  propositions  in  the  following  outlines  so  that 
they  shall  come  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  the  most  impor- 
tant last. 

1.  Why  every  boy  should  learn  how  to  cook. 

(1)  Because  it  will  be  useful  when  he  camps  out. 

(2)  Because  it  will  teach  him  to  be  helpful  at  home. 

(3)  Because  good  cooking  is  necessary  to  good  health. 

(4)  Because  the  cook  may  leave  suddenly. 

(5)  Because  he  may  have  a  special  talent  for  it. 

2.  How  to  make  yourself  popular. 

(1)  Don't  take  offence  easily. 

(2)  Avoid  wrangling  over  long-standing  differences. 

(3)  Let  the  beliefs  and  opinions  of  others  alone. 

(4)  Never  expose  needlessly  the  weaknesses  of  others. 

(5)  Follow  the  golden  rule. 

(6)  Never  betray  a  secret. 

D.  Restate  and  recombine  the  following,  so  as  to  bring  out  the 
relationship  of  cause  and  effect.  Give  heed  also  to  the  principle 
of  climax. 

Vacations  should  be  abolished. 

1.  Saturday  and  Sunday  and  the  national  holidays  give 
plenty  of  time  for  rest  and  recreation. 

2.  Two  or  three  years  of  school  work  could  be  saved. 

3.  Hard-working  business  men  get  on  very  well  with 
only  ten  days  of  vacation. 

4.  Young  people  need  recreation  less  than  older  people. 

5.  Pupils  forget  in  vacation  what  they  learned  in  school- 
time. 

6.  There  would  be  time  to  do  more  thorough  work. 


GROUPING    TOPICS.  41 

E.  Read  Bryant's  Thanatopsis  and  Longfellow's  Psalm  of  Life. 
Make  a  plan  for  a  brief  essay  contrasting  these  two  poems,  and 
write  the  essay. 

F.  Read  Lowell's  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  and  make  a  plan  show- 
ing the  contrasts  between  the  hero  as  he  is  at  the  beginning  and 
the  hero  as  he  is  at  the  end. 

G.  If  you  have  read  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake,  make  a  plan  show- 
ing all  of  the  contrasts  between  James  Fitz-James  and  Roderick 
Dhu. 

H.  Make  a  plan  for  an  essay  on  the  subject,  A  Comparison 
and  Contrast  between  the  Flight  of  a  Bird  and  the  Flight  of  an 
Aeroplane. 

I.  Figures  1  and  2  (pp.  42  and  43)  are  two  representations,  by 
different  artists,  of  the  same  scene  from  Dickens's  Christmas  Carol. 
A*fter  reading  or  rereading  the  story,  make  a  plan  for  an  essay  de- 
scribing the  two  drawings.  See  that  your  plan  suggests  plainly 
the  points  both  of  likeness  and  of  difference.  Then  write  the 
essay. 

J.  You  are  to  make  a  short  after-dinner  speech  at  a  class  ban- 
quet on  the  subject,  Our  School.  In  your  note-book  you  have  set 
down  the  following  suggestions :  — 

1.  When  the  school  was  established.  2.  Oar  first  ac- 
quaintance with  it.  3.  Things  about  the  school  that  we 
like  to  remember.  4.  Our  victories  in  athletics  and  oratory. 
5.    Our  teachers.     6.    Some  amusing  incidents. 

Select  from  these  the  topics  you  can  use,  add  others  if  necessary, 
and  arrange  them  in  an  orderly  way.  Then  write  the  speech. 
Beware  of  trying  to  say  too  much. 


Figure  1. 


42 


Figure  2. 


43 


CHAPTER   III. 

PARAGRAPHS. 
Introductory. 

16.  We  have  learned  how  the  larger  unit  of  composi- 
tion, called  the  essay  or  theme,  grows  from  a  vague 
idea  into  a  complete,  well-framed  structure.  We  have 
studied  the  processes  of  dividing  and  grouping  by  which 
this  growth  takes  place.  We  have  now  to  consider  a 
similar  growth  in  the  smaller  units,  called  paragraphs, 
of  which  the  essay  is  composed. 

While  the  composition  is  being  written,  each  topic  in 
the  plan  —  each  fact  or  group  of  related  facts  —  grows 
into  a  group  of  sentences  that  belong  together.  These 
groups  of  related  sentences  are  called  paragraphs. 
Careful  writers  mark  off  every  such  group  for  the 
benefit  of  the  reader  by  beginning  the  first  sentence  a 
little  to  the  right  of  the  left  margin.  But  whether 
carefully  marked  off  or  carelessly  run  together,  the 
groups  are  there,  and  in  all  good  writing  are  easily 
recognized  by  the  reader  as  the  related  units  which 
make  up  the  whole  composition. 

One  writer  has  said,  "  Look  to  the  paragraphs  and  the 
discourse  will  look  to  itself,  for,  although  a  discourse  as 
a  whole  has  a  method  or  plan  suited  to  its  nature,  yet 
the  confining  of  each  paragraph  to  a  distinct  topic 
avoids  some  of  the  worst  faults  of  composition,  besides 

44 


TOPIC  STATEMENT.  45 

which,  he  that  fully  comprehends  the  method  of  a  para- 
graph will  also  comprehend  the  method  of  an  entire 
work." 

Topic  Statement. 

17.  In  good  writing  the  reader  can  usually  pick  out  one 
of  the  sentences  vrhich  states  the  main  idea  of  the  paragraph. 
Usually  this  sentence,  which  is  called  the  topic  state- 
ment, is  at  the  very  beginning  of  the  paragraph  ;  some- 
times it  comes  later ;  occasionally  it  is  left  until  the  very 
end.  Sometimes  it  occupies  two  sentences  ;  again  it  is 
found  in  a  single  phrase  or  clause.  If  the  reader  finds  no 
topic  statement,  he  can  usually  make  one  for  himself, 
from  what  the  paragraph  says  as  a  whole. 

The  most  important  part  of  the  sentence  that  states 
the  topic  is  the  predicate,  or  some  adverb,  or  adjective. 
In  the  sentence,  "  The  poor  are  usually  ungrateful  to 
those  who  help  them,"  the  topic  is  not  "  the  poor  "  but 
their  "ungratefulness."  In  the  sentence,  "I  made  a 
laughable  mistake,"  the  topic  is  not  "  mistake,"  but 
"  laughable  mistake."  What  is  said  of  the  subject,  in  the 
predicate,  or  in  some  modifier,  is  the  all-important  thing. 

The  test  of  a  good  paragraph  is  the  possibility  of  expressing 
all  that  it  stands  for  in  one  brief  but  comprehensive  statement. 
A  series  of  such  statements,  following  the  order  of  the  para- 
graphs, would  reproduce  the  plan  or  outline  of  the  whole  com- 
position, and  would  present  its  leading  ideas  in  brief  or  abstract. 

18.  Assignments  on  the  Topic  Statement. 

A.  In  each  of  the  following  paragraphs  one  sentence  or  a  part 
of  one  sentence  is  devoted  to  the  topic  statement.  Find  it.  If  it 
is  not  stated  first,  can  you  think  of  a  reason  why  the  writer  de- 
layed announcing  it  ? 


46  PARAGRAPHS. 

1.  I  made  a  laughable  mistake  this  morning  in  giving  alms. 
A  man  stood  on  the  shady  side  of  the  street  with  his  hat  in 
his  hand,  and  as  I  passed  he  gave  me  a*piteous  look,  though 
he  said  nothing.  He  had  such  a  woe-begone  face,  and  such 
a  threadbare  coat,  that  I  at  once  took  him  for  one  of  those 
mendicants  who  bear  the  title  of  poveri  vergognosi  —  bashful 
beggars  ;  persons  whom  pinching  want  compels  to  receive 
the  stranger's  charity,  though  pride  restrains  them  from 
asking  it.  Moved  with  compassion,  I  threw  into  the  hat 
the  little  I  had  to  give ;  when,  instead  of  thanking  me  with 
a  blessing,  my  man  with  the  threadbare  coat  showered  upon 
me  the  inost  sonorous  maledictions  of  his  native  tongue, 
and,  emptying  his  greasy  hat  upon  the  pavement,  drew  it 
down  over  his  ears  with  both  hands,  and  stalked  away  with 
all  the  dignity  of  a  Roman  senator  in  the  best  days  of  the 
republic, — to  the  infinite  amusement  of  a  green-grocer, 
who  stood  at  his  shop-door  bursting  with  laughter.  No 
time  Was  given  me  for  an  apology ;  but  I  resolved  to 
be  for  the  future  more  discriminating  in  my  charities,  and 
not  to  take  for  a  beggar  every  poor  gentleman  who  chose 
to  stand  in  the  shade  with  his  hat  in  his  hand  on  a  hot 
summer's  day. 

—  Longfellow  :   Outre-Mer. 

2.  We  are  accustomed  to  call  Washington  the  ^^  Father 
of  his  country."  It  would  be  useless,  if  one  desired  to  do 
so,  to  dispute  his  right  to  the  title.  He  and  no  other  will 
bear  it  through  the  ages.  He  established  our  country's  free- 
dom with  the  sword,  then  guided  its  course  during  the  first 
critical  years  of  its  independent  existence.  !N"o  one  can 
know  the  figure  without  feeling  how  real  is  its  greatness.  It 
is  impossible  to  see  how,  without  Washington,  the  nation 
could  have  ever  been.  His  name  is  and  should  be  greatest. 
But  after  all  is  ^'Father  of  America"   the  best   title   for 


TOPIC  STATEMENT,  47 

Washington  ?  Where  and  what  was  Washington  during 
those  long  preliminary  years  while  the  nation  was  taking 
form  .  .  .  ?  A  quiet  planter,  who  in  youth  as  a  surveyor 
had  come  to  know  the  woods ;  who  in  his  young  manhood 
had  led  bodies  of  provincials  with  some  efficiency  in  certain 
unsuccessful  military  expeditions ;  who  in  maturity  had  sat, 
for  the  most  part  in  silence,  among  his  tallying  colleagues  in 
the  House  of  Burgesses,  with  scarcely  a  suggestion  to  make 
in  all  the  sharp  debate,  while  the  new  nation  was  shaping. 
There  is  another  character  in  our  history  to  whom  was  once 
given  the  title,  "Father  of  America,"  —  a  man  to  a  large 
extent  forgotten,  his  reputation  overlaid  by  that  of  those 
who  followed  him,  —  no  other  than  this  man  of  the  town- 
meeting,  Samuel  Adams.  As  far  as  the  genesis  of  America 
is  concerned,  Samuel  Adams  can  more  properly  be  called  the 
"Father  of  America"  than  Washington. 

—  HosMER :  Samuel  Adams. 

B.  In  each  of  the  following  paragraphs  the  topic  statement,  is 
found  in  two  or  more  sentences  or  in  parts  of  two  or  more  sen- 
tences. Restate  it  briefly  in  a  single  sentence.  Remember  that  the 
most  significant  part  of  the  sentence  will  be  the  predicate,  or  some 
adjective  or  adverb. 

1.  There  is  a  general  impression  in  England,  that  the 
people  of  the  United  States  are  inimical  to  the  parent 
country.  It  is  one  of  the  errors  which  have  been  diligently 
propagated  by  designing  writers.  There  is,  doubtless,  con- 
siderable political  hostility,  and  a  general  soreness  at  the 
illiberality  of  the  English  press;  but,  generally  speaking, 
the  prepossessions  of  the  people  are  strongly  in  favor  of 
England.  Indeed,  at  one  time,  they  amounted,  in  many 
parts  of  the  Union,  to  an  absurd  degree  of  bigotry.  The 
bare  name  of  Englishman  was  a  passport  to  the  confidence 
and  hospitality  of  every  family,  and  too  often  gave  a  tran- 


48  PARAGRAPHS. 

sient  currency  to  the  worthless  and  the  ungrateful .  Through- 
out the  country  there  was  something  of  enthusiasm  con- 
nected with  the  idea  of  England.  We  looked  to  it  with  a 
hallowed  feeling  of  tenderness  and  veneration,  as  the  land 
of  our  forefathers  —  the  august  repository  of  the  monu- 
ments and  antiquities  of  our  race  —  the  birthplace  and 
mausoleum  of  the  sages  and  heroes  of  our  paternal  history. 
After  our  own  country,  there  was  none  in  whose  glory  we 
more  delighted  —  none  whose  good  opinion  we  were  more 
anxious  to  possess  —  none  towards  which  our  hearts  yearned 
with  such  throbbings  of  warm  consanguinity.  Even  during 
the  late  war,  whenever  there  was  the  least  opportunity  for 
kind  feelings  to  spring  forth,  it  was  the  delight  of  the 
generous  spirits  of  our  country  to  show  that,  in  the  midst  of 
hostilities,  they  still  kept  alive  the  sparks  of  future  friend- 
ship. —  Irving  :  Sketch-Book. 

2.  To  the  student  of  political  history,  and  to  the  English 
student  above  all  others,  the  conversion  of  the  Roman  Re- 
public into  a  military  empire  commands  a  peculiar  interest. 
Notwithstanding  many  differences,  the  English  and  the 
Romans  essentially  resemble  one  another.  The  early  Ro- 
mans possessed  the  faculty  of  self-government  beyond  any 
people  of  whom  we  have  historical  knowledge,  with  the  one 
exception  of  ourselves.  In  virtue  of  their  temporal  free- 
dom, they  became  the  most  powerful  nation  in  the  known 
world ;  and  their  liberties  perished  only  when  Rome  became 
the  mistress  of  the  conquered  races  to  whom  she  was  unable 
or  unwilling  to  extend  her  privileges.  If  England  was 
similarly  supreme,  if  all  rival  powers  were  eclipsed  by  her 
or  laid  under  her  feet,  the  Imperial  tendencies,  which  are  as 
strongly  marked  in  us  as  our  love  of  liberty,  might  lead  us 
over  the  same  course  to  the  same  end. 

—  Froude  :   Ccesar  ;  A  Sketch. 


TOPIC  STATEMENT.  49 

3.  You  would  think  it  strange  if  I  called  Burns  the  most 
gifted  British  soul  we  had  in  all  that  century  of  his :  and 
yet  I  believe  the  day  is  coming  when  there  will  be  little 
danger  in  saying  so.  His  writings,  all  that  he  did  under 
such  obstructions,  are  only  a  poor  fragment  of  him.  Pro- 
fessor Stewart  remarked  very  justly,  what,  indeed,  is  true 
of  all  Poets  good  for  much,  that  his  poetry  was  not  any 
particular  faculty,  but  the  general  result  of  a  naturally 
vigorous  original  mind  expressing  itself  in  that  way. 
Burns's  gifts,  expressed  in  conversation,  are  the  theme  of 
all  that  ever  heard  him.  All  kinds  of  gifts :  from  the 
gracefulest  utterances  of  courtesy,  to  the  highest  fire  of 
passionate  speech ;  loud  floods  of  mirth,  soft  wailings  of 
affection,  laconic  emphasis,  clear,  piercing  insight ;  all  was 
in  him.  Witty  duchesses  celebrate  him  as  a  man  whose 
speech  ^^  led  them  off  their  feet.'^  This  is  beautiful ;  but 
still  more  beautiful  that  which  Mr.  Lockhart  has  recorded, 
which  I  have  more  than  once  alluded  to.  How  the  waiters 
and  ostilers  at  inns  would  get  out  of  bed,  and  come  crowding 
to  hear  this  man  speak !  Waiters  and  ostlers ;  —  they  too 
were  men,  and  here  was  a  man  !  I  have  heard  much  about 
his  speech ;  but  one  of  the  best  things  I  ever  heard  of  it 
was,  last  year,  from  a  venerable  gentleman  long  familiar 
with  him.  That  it  was  speech  distinguished  by  always 
having  something  in  it.  "  He  spoke  rather  little  than  much," 
this  old  man  told  me ;  "  sat  rather  silent  in  those  early 
days,  as  in  the  company  of  persons  above  him ;  and  al- 
ways when  he  did  speak,  it  was  to  throw  new  light  on  the 
matter."  I  know  not  why  any  one  should  ever  speak  other- 
wise !  —  But  if  we  look  at  his  general  force  of  soul,  his 
healthy  robustness  every  way,  the  rugged  downrightness, 
penetration,  generous  valor  and  manfulness  that  was  in  him, 
—  where  shall  we  readily  find  a  better-gifted  man? 

—  Carlyle  :  Heroes  and  Hero-  Worship, 


50  PARAGRAPHS. 

C.  These  paragraphs  as  originally  written  contained  topic 
statements.  Supply  the  omission  at  the  place  indicated  by  the 
dots,  and  remember  that  the  predicate  of  the  topic  statement  is  of 
prime  importance. 

1.    School  Life  away  from  Home. 

You  are  about,  sir,  to  send  your  son  to  a  public  school : 
Eton  or  Westminster ;  Winchester  or  Harrow ;  Rugby  or 
the  Charter  House,  no  matter  which.  He  may  come  from 
either  an  accomplished  scholar  to  the  utmost  extent  that 
school  education  can  make  him  so ;  he  may  be  the  better 
both  for  its  discipline  and  its  want  of  discipline ;  it  may 
serve  him  excellently  well  as  a  preparatory  school  for  the 
world  into  which  he  is  about  to  enter.  But  also  he  may 
come  away  an  empty  coxcomb  or  a  hardened  brute  —  a 
spendthrift  —  a  profligate  —  a  blackguard  or  a  sot.  .  .  . 

2.   Pride  of  the  English. 

.  .  .  They  feel  superior  to  the  Americans  of  the-  United 
States  by  antiquity  and  by  priority  of  civilization,  and  they 
believe  themselves  to  be  their  superiors  in  culture  and  in 
manners.  Besides  these  differences,  which  may  be  more  or 
less  imaginary,  it  is  obvious  that  aristocratic  Englishmen 
must  look  down  upon  American  democracy,  since  they  look 
down,  impartially,  upon  all  democracies.  The  English  liv- 
ing in  England  have  a  superiority  of  position  over  their  own 
colonies,  and  are  surprised  to  learn  from  Mr.  Froude  that 
a  high  degree  of  civilization  is  to  be  found  at  the  Antip- 
odes, ■ffhere  are  two  opposite  ways  of  thinking  about  the 
colonies  that  give  equal  aliment  to  the  pride  of  an  English- 
man. He  may  have  something  like  Mrs.  Jameson's  first 
impression  of  Canadian  society,  as  "  a  small  community  of 
fourth-rate,  half-educated,  or  uneducated  people,  where  local 
politics   of  the  meanest  kind  engross  the  men,  and  petty 


TOPIC    STATEMENT.  51 

gossip  and  household  cares  the  women/'  and  in  that  case 
the  superiority  of  England  must  be  incontestable;  or  he 
may  adopt  the  views  of  Mr.  Froude,  and  then  reflect  what 
a  great  thing  it  is  for  England  to  be  the  first  among  the 
highly  civilized  English-speaking  communities.  He  is,  be- 
sides, under  no  necessity  to  cross  the  ocean  for  subjects 
of  comparison.  He  feels  himself  easily  superior  to  the 
Scotch  and  Irish,  and  until  recent  agitations  he  had  almost 
forgotten  the  very  existence  of  the  Welsh.  All  Scotch  peo- 
ple know  that  the  English,  though  they  visit  Scotland  to 
admire  the  lochs  and  enjoy  Highland  sports,  are  as  ignorant 
about  what  is  essentially  national  in  that  country  as 
if  it  were  a  foreign  land.  Ireland  is  at  least  equally 
foreign  to  them,  or  was  so  before  the  burning  question 
of  Home  Rule  directed  attention  to  Irish  affairs.  This 
ignorance  is  not  attributable  to  dulness.  It  has  but  one 
cause,  .... 

3.    The  Relations  of  Birds. 

...  A  few  years  ago,  I  was  much  interested  in  the 
house-building  of  a  pair  of  summer  yellowbirds.  They  had 
chosen  a  very  pretty  site  near  the  top  of  a  white  lilac, 
within  easy  eye-shot  of  a  chamber  window.  A  very  pleasant 
thing  it  was  to  see  their  little  home  growing  with  mutual 
help,  to  watch  their  industrious  skill  interrupted  only  by 
little  flirts  and  snatches  of  endearment,  frugally  cut  short 
by  the  common  sense  of  the  tiny  housewife.  They  had 
brought  their  work  nearly  to  an  end,  and  had  already  begun 
to  line  it  with  fern-down,  the  gathering  of  which  demanded 
more  distant  journeys  and  longer  absences.  But,  alas!  the 
syringa,  immemorial  manor  of  the  catbirds,  was  not  more 
than  twenty  feet  away,  and  these  ''giddy  neighbors  "  had,  as 
it  appeared,  been  all  along  jealously  watchful,  though  silent, 
witnesses  of  what  they  deemed  an  intrusion  of  squatters. 


52  PARAGRAPHS. 

No  sooner  were  the  pretty  mates  fairly  gone  for  a  new  load 
of  lining,  than 

"  To  their  unguarded  nest  these  weasel  Scots 
Came  stealing." 

Silently  they  flew  back  and  forth,  each  giving  a  vengeful 
dab  at  the  nest  in  passing.  They  did  not  fall-to  and  delib- 
erately destroy  it,  for  they  might  have  been  caught  at  their 
mischief.  As  it  was,  whenever  the  yellowbirds  came  back, 
their  enemies  were  hidden  in  their  own  sight-proof  bush. 
Several  times  their  unconscious  victims  repaired  damages, 
but  at  length,  after  counsel  taken  together,  they  gave  it  up. 
Perhaps,  like  other  unlettered  folk,  they  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  Devil  was  in  it,  and  yielded  to  the  invisible 
persecutions  of  witchcraft. 

4.   How  Shakespeare  regarded  his  Plays. 

.  .  .  When  his  plays  had  been  acted,  his  hope  was  at  an 
end ;  he  solicited  no  addition  of  honor  from  the  reader.  He 
therefore  made  no  scruple  to  repeat  the  same  jests  in  many 
dialogues,  or  to  entangle  different  plots  by  the  same  knot  of 
perplexity ;  which  may  be  at  least  forgiven  him  by  those 
who  recollect  that  of  Congreve's  four  comedies,  two  are 
concluded  by  a  marriage  in  a  mask,  by  a  deception  which 
perhaps  never  happened,  and  which,  whether  likely  or  not, 
he  did  not  invent. 

So  careless  was  this  great  poet  of  future  fame  that, 
though  he  retired  to  ease  and  plenty  while  he  was  yet  little 
"  declined  into  the  vale  of  years,"  before  he  could  be  dis- 
gusted with  fatigue,  or  disabled  by  infirmity,  he  made  no 
collection  of  his  works,  nor  desired  to  rescue  those  that  had 
been  already  published  from  the  depravations  that  obscured 
them,  or  secure  to  the  rest  a  better  destiny,  by  giving  them 
to  the  world  in  their  genuine  state. 


TOPIC  STATEMENT,  53 

Of  the  plays  which  bear  the  name  of  Shakespeare  in  the 
late  editions,  the  greater  part  were  not  published  till  about 
seven  years  after  his  death ;  and  the  few  which  appeared 
in  his  life  are  apparently  thrust  into  the  world  without 
the  care  of  the  author,  and  therefore  probably  without  his 
knowledge. 

D.  These  paragraphs  are  as  they  were  originally  written.  They 
contain  no  formal  topic  statement  and  do  not  need  any.  See  if 
you  can  make  a  topic  statement  for  each  that  might  be  printed 
as  part  of  the  paragraph.  The  predicate  of  your  topic  statement 
is  the  main  point. 

1.  Irving  had  such  a  small  house  and  such  narrow  rooms, 
because  there  was  a  great  number  of  people  to  occupy  them. 
He  could  only  afford  to  keep  one  old  horse  (which,  lazy  and 
aged  as  it  was,  managed  once  or  twice  to  ran  away  with 
that  careless  old  horseman).  He  could  only  afford  to  give 
plain  sherry  to  that  amiable  British  paragraph-monger,  who 
saw  the  patriarch  asleep  over  his  modest,  blameless  cup, 
and  fetched  the  public  into  his  private  chamber  to  look 
at  him.  Irving  could  only  live  very  modestly,  because  the 
wifeless,  childless  man  had  a  number  of  children  to  whom 
he  was  as  a  father.  He  had  as  many  as  nine  nieces,  I  am 
told  —  I  saw  two  of  these  ladies  at  his  house  —  with  all  of 
whom  the  dear  old  man  had  shared  the  produce  of  his  labor 
and  genius.  —  Thackeray  :  .^^7  Nisi  Bonum. 

2.  A  report  is  going  the  rounds  of  the  newspapers  — 
and  may,  nevertheless,  be  true  —  that  some  Cornell  Uni- 
versity students  were  ruled  out  from  rowing  in  the  Henley 
regatta  because  they  had  crossed  the  ocean  in  a  cattle- 
steamer,  and  had  therefore  earned  money  by  the  work  of 
their  hands.  The  college  oarsmen,  it  was  stated,  "  must  be 
gentlemen,"  and  no  gentleman  could  have  worked  with  his 
hands.     The  rumor   looks   a  little   improbable   because  in 


54  PABAGRAPH8. 

Tom  Brown  at  Eugby,  written  nearly  half  a  century  ago, 
a  college  crew  is  described  as  being  saved  by  a  plebeian 
student,  who  had,  it  is  to  be  presumed,  done  some  manual 
labor.  If,  however,  the  tale  be  true,  it  points  to  a  difference, 
still  insurmountable,  between  the  English  and  American 
students.  —  Thomas  Wextworth  Higginson  :  English  and 
American  Gentlemen. 

3.  Do  you  remember  the  brown  suit  which  you  made  to 
hang  upon  you,  till  all  your  friends  cried  shame  upon  you, 
it  grew  so  threadbare,  and  all  because  of  that  folio  Beaumont 
and  Fletcher,  which  you  dragged  home  late  that  night  from 
Barker's  in  Covent  Garden  ?  Do  you  remember  how  we 
eyed  it  for  weeks  before  we  could  make  up  our  minds  to 
the  purchase,  and  had  not  come  to  a  determination  till  it 
was  near  ten  o'clock  of  the  Saturday  night,  when  you  set  off 
from  Islington  fearing  you  should  be  too  late  —  and  when 
the  old  bookseller,  with  some  grumbling,  opened  his  shop, 
and  by  the  twinkling  taper  (for  he  was  setting  bedwards), 
lighted  out  the  relic  from  his  dusty  treasures,  and  when 
you  lugged  it  home,  wishing  it  were  twice  as  cumbersome, 
and  when  you  presented  it  to  me,  and  when  we  were  explor- 
ing the  perfectness  of  it  (collating,  you  called  it),  aijd  while 
I  was  repairing  some  of  the  loosed  leaves  with  paste,  which 
your  impatience  would  not  suffer  to  be  left  till  daybreak  — 
v/as  there  no  pleasure  in  being  a  poor  man  ?  or  can  those 
neat  black  clothes  which  you  wear  now,  and  are  so  careful 
to  keep  brushed,  since  we  have  become  rich  and  finical,  give 
you  half  the  honest  vanity  with  which  you  flaunted  it  about 
in  that  overworn  suit  —  your  old  corbeau  —  for  four  or  five 
weeks  longer  than  you  should  have  done,  to  pacify  your 
conscience  for  the  mighty  sum  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  shillings, 
was  it  ?  —  a  great  affair  you  thought  it  then  — '-  which  you 
had  lavished  on  the  old  folio  ?     Now  you  can  afford  to  buy 


TOPIC    STATEMENT.  55 

any  book  that  pleases  you,  but  I  do  not  see  that  you  ever 
bring  me  home  any  nice  old  purchases  now. 

—  Lamb  :  Essay  on  Old  China. 

4.  Nothing  strikes  one  more,  in  the  race  of  life,  than  to 
see  how  many  give  out  in  the  first  half  of  the  course.  "  Com- 
mencement day"  always  reminds  me  of  the  start  for  the 
"  Derby, "  when  the  beautiful  high-bred  three-year-olds  of 
the  season  are  brought  up  for  trial.  That  day  is  the  start, 
and  life  is  the  race.  .  .  .  This  is  the  start  and  here  they 
are,  —  coat  bright  as  silk  and  manes  as  smooth  as  eau 
lustrale  can  make  them.  Some  of  the  best  of  the  colts  are 
pranced  round,  a  few  minutes  each,  to  show  their  paces. 
What  is  that  old  gentleman  crying  about  ?  and  the  old  lady 
by  him,  and  the  three  girls,  what  are  they  all  covering  their 
eyes  for  ?  Oh,  that  is  their  colt  which  has  just  been  trotted 
upon  the  stage.  Do  they  really  think  those  little  thin  legs 
can  do  anything  in  such  a  slashing  sweepstakes  as  is  coming 
off  in  these  next  forty  years  ?  .  .  . 

Fifty  years.  Race  over.  All  that  are  on  the  course  are 
coming  in  at  a  walk ;  no  more  running.  Who  is  ahead  ? 
Ahead?  What!  and  the  winning  post  a  slab  of  white  or 
gray  stone  standing  out  from  that  turf  where  there  is  no 
more  jockeying  or  straining  for  victory !  Well,  the  world 
marks  their  places  in  its  betting-book ;  but  be  sure  that  these 
matter  very  little,  if  they  have  run  as  well  as  they  know 
how  !  —  Holmes  :  Autocrat. 

5.  I  pray,  0  excellent  wife,  not  to  cumber  yourself  and 
me  to  get  a  rich  dinner  for  this  man  or  this  woman  who 
has  alighted  at  our  gate,  nor  a  bedchamber  made  ready  at 
too  great  a  cost.  These  things,  if  they  are  curious  in  them, 
they  can  get  for  a  dollar  at  any  village.  But  let  this 
stranger,  if  he  will,  in  your  looks,  in  your  accent  and  be- 


56  PARAGRAPHS. 

havior,  read  your  heart  and  earnestness,  your  thought  and 
will,  —  which  he  cannot  buy  at  any  price  in  any  village  or 
city,  and  which  he  may  well  travel  fifty  miles,  and  dine 
sparely  and  sleep  hard,  in  order  to  behold.  Certainly  let 
the  board  be  spread,  and  let  the  bed  be  dressed  for  the 
traveller,  but  let  not  the  emphasis  of  hospitality  lie  in  these 
things.  Honor  to  the  house  where  they  are  simple  to  the 
verge  of  hardship,  so  that  there  the  intellect  is  awake  and 
reads  the  laws  of  the  universe,  the  soul  worships  truth  and 
love,  honor  and  courtesy  flow  into  all  deeds. 

—  Emerson  :  Domestic  Life. 

E.  Four  ideas  will  be  found  in  the  following  selection  :  (1)  rea- 
sons for  Hamlet's  sadness ;  (2)  the  effect  upon  him  of  the  hasty 
marriage  of  the  queen ;  (3)  his  varying  moods ;  (4)  his  harshness 
toward  Ophelia,  the  queen,  and  the  king.  Where  should  the 
second  paragraph  begin  ?  the  third  ?  the  fourth  ? 

The  young  prince  Hamlet  was  not  happy  at  Elsinore.  It 
was  not  because  he  missed  the  gay  student-life  of  Witten- 
berg, and  that  the  little  Danish  court  was  intolerably  dull. 
It  was  not  because  the  didactic  lord  chamberlain  bored  him 
with  long  speeches,  or  that  the  lord  chamberlain's  daughter 
was  become  a  shade  wearisome.  Hamlet  had  more  serious 
cues  for  unhappiness.  He  had  been  summoned  suddenly 
from  Wittenberg  to  attend  his  father's  funeral ;  close  upon 
this  and  while  his  grief  was  green,  his  mother  had  married 
with  his  uncle  Claudius,  whom  Hamlet  had  never  liked. 
The  indecorous  haste  of  these  nuptials  —  they  took  place 
within  two  months  after  the  king's  death,  the  funeral  baked 
meats,  as  Hamlet  cursorily  remarked,  furnishing  forth  the 
marriage-tables  —  struck  the  young  prince  aghast.  He  had 
loved  the  queen;  his  mother,  and  had  nearly  idolized  the  late 
king ;  but  now  he  forgot  to  lament  the  death  of  the  one  in 
contemplating  the  life  of  the  other.     The  billing  and  cooing 


TOPIC    STATEMENT.  57 

of  the  newly  married  couple  filled  him  with  horror.  Anger, 
shame,  pity,  and  despair  seized  upon  him  by  turns.  He  fell 
into  a  forlorn  condition,  forsaking  his  books,  eating  little 
save  of  the  chameleon's  dish,  the  air,  drinking  deep  of 
Rhenish,  letting  his  long,  black  locks  go  unkempt,  and 
neglecting  his  dress  —  he  who  had  hitherto  been  "  the  glass 
of  fashion  and  the  mould  of  form,''  as^Ophelia  had  prettily 
said  of  him.  Often  for  half  the  night  he  would  wander 
along  the  ramparts  of  the  castle,  at  the  imminent  risk  of 
tumbling  off,  gazing  seaward  and  muttering  strangely  to 
himself,  and  evolving  frightful  spectres  out  of  the  shadows 
cast  by  the  turrets.  Sometimes  he  lapsed  into  a  gentle 
melancholy;  but  not  seldom  his  mood  was  ferocious,  and  at 
such  times  the  conversational  Polonius,  with  a  discretion 
that  did  him  credit,  steered  clear  of  my  lord  Hamlet.  He 
turned  no  more  graceful  compliments  for  Ophelia.  The 
thought  of  marrying  her,  if  he  had  ever  seriously  thought 
of  it,  was  gone  now.  He  rather  ruthlessly  advised  her  to 
go  into  a  nunnery.  His  mother  had  sickened  him  of- 
women.  It  was  of  her  he  spoke  the  notable  words, 
"Frailty,  thy  name  is  woman!"  which,  some  time  after- 
wards, an  amiable  French  gentleman  had  neatly  engraved 
on  the  headstone  of  his  wife,  who  had  long  been  an  invalid. 
Even  the  king  and  queen  did  not  escape  Hamlet  in  his  dis- 
tempered moments.  Passing  his  mother  in  a  corridor  or  on 
a  staircase  of  the  palace,  he  would  suddenly  plant  a  verbal 
dagger  in  her  heart ;  and  frequently,  in  full  court,  he  would 
deal  the  king  such  a  cutting  reply  as  caused  him  to  blanch, 
and  gnaw  his  lip.  —  T.  B.  Aldrich  :  A  Midnight  Fantasy. 

F.  At  what  places  in  the  following  should  there  be  indentions 
for  the  purpose  of  marking  off  conversation?  At  what  other 
places  should  there  be  indentions  for  the  purpose  of  marking  off 
the  stages  of  the  story  ?  Can  you  give  a  name  to  each  stage  as  if 
the  story  were  a  play  ? 


68  PABAGBAPHS, 

Then  up  rose  Mrs.  Cratchit,  Cratchit's  wife,  dressed  out 
but  poorly  in  a  twice-turned  gown,  but  brave  in  ribbons, 
which  are  cheap,  and  make  a  goodly  show  for  sixpence  ;  and 
she  laid  the  cloth,  assisted  by  Belinda  Cratchit,  second  of 
her  daughters,  also  brave  in  ribbons,  while  Master  Peter 
Cratchit  plunged  a  fork  into  the  saucepan  of  potatoes,  and 
getting  the  corners  of  his  monstrous  shirt-collar  (Bob's 
private  property,  conferred  upon  his  son  and  heir  in  honor 
of  the  day)  into  his  mouth,  rejoiced  to  find  himself  so 
gallantly  attired,  and  yearned  to  show  his  linen  in  the 
fashionable  parks.  And  now  two  smaller  Cratchits,  boy 
and  girl,  came  tearing  in,  screaming  that  outside  the  baker's 
they  had  smelt  the  goose,  and  known  it  for  their  own ;  and 
basking  in  luxurious  thoughts  of  sage  and  onion,  these 
young  Cratchits  danced  about  the  table,  and  exalted  Master 
Peter  Cratchit  to  the  skies,  while  he  (not  proud,  although 
his  collars  nearly  choked  him)  blew  the  fire,  until  the  slow 
potatoes  bubbling  up  knocked  loudly  at  the  saucepan-lid  to 
be  let  out  and  peeled.  "  What  has  ever  got  your  precious 
father,  then?"  said  Mrs.  Cratchit.  "And  your  brother, 
Tiny  Tim !  And  Martha  wasn't  as  late  last  Christmas  Day 
by  half  an  hour ! "  "  Here's  Martha,  mother ! "  said  a  girl, 
appearing  as  she  spoke.  "  Here's  Martha,  mother  ! "  cried 
the  two  young  Cratchits.  "  Hurrah !  There's  such  a  goose, 
Martha ! "  ^*  Why,  bless  your  heart  alive,  my  dear,  how  late 
you  are  ! "  said  Mrs.  Cratchit,  kissing  her  a  dozen  times,  and 
taking  off  her  shawl  and  bonnet  for  her  with  officious  zeal. 
"  We'd  a  deal  of  work  to  finish  up  last  night,"  replied  the 
girl;  "and  had  to  clear  away  this  morning,  mother." 
"  Well,  never  mind  so  long  as  you  are  come,"  said  Mrs. 
Cratchit.  "  Sit  ye  down  before  the  fire,  my  dear,  and  have 
a  warm.  Lord  bless  ye !  "  "  No,  no !  There's  father  com- 
ing," cried  the  two  young  Cratchits,  who  were  everywhere 
at  once.     "  Hide,  Martha,  hide  ! "     So  Martha  hid  herself ; 


TOPIC  STATEMENT.  59 

and  in  came  little  Bob,  the  father,  with  at  least  three  feet  of 
comforter,  exclusive  of  the  fringe,  hanging  down  before 
him ;  and  his  threadbare  clothes  darned  up  and  brushed,  to 
look  seasonable;  and  Tiny  Tim  upon  his  shoulder.  Alas 
for  Tiny  Tim,  he  bore  a  little  crutch,  and  had  his  limbs 
supported  by  an  iron  frame  !  *^  Why,  where's  our  Martha  ?  " 
cried  Bob  Cratchit,  looking  round.  "Not  coming,"  said 
Mrs.  Cratchit.  "Not  coming!"  said  Bob,  with  a  sudden 
declension  in  his  high  spirits ;  for  he  had  been  Tim's  blood 
horse  all  the  way  from  church,  and  had  come  home  rampant. 
"  Not  coming  upon  Christmas  Day  !  "  Martha  didn't  like  to 
see  him  disappointed,  if  it  were  only  in  joke,  so  she  came 
out  prematurely  from  behind  the  closet  door,  and  ran  into 
his  arms ;  while  the  two  young  Cratchits  hustled  Tiny  Tim, 
and  bore  him  off  into  the  wash-house,  that  he  might  hear 
the  pudding  singing  in  the  copper.  "And  how  did  little 
Tim  behave  ? "  asked  Mrs.  Cratchit,  when  she  had  rallied 
Bob  on  his  credulity,  and  Bob  had  hugged  his  daughter  to 
his  heart's  content.  "As  good  as  gold,"  said  Bob,  "and 
better.  Somehow  he  gets  thoughtful,  sitting  by  himself  so 
much,  and  thinks  the  strangest  things  you  ever  heard.  He 
told  me,  coming  home,  that  he  hoped  the  people  saw  him  in 
the  church,  because  he  was  a  cripple,  and  it  might  be 
pleasant  to  them  to  remember  upon  Christmas  Day  who 
made  lame  beggars  walk  and  blind  men  see."  Bob's  voice 
was  tremulous  when  he  told  them  this,  and  trembled  more 
when  he  said  that  Tiny  Tim  was  growing  strong  and  hearty. 
His  active  little  crutch  was  heard  upon  the  floor,  and  back 
came  Tiny  Tim  before  another  word  was  spoken,  escorted 
by  his  brother  and  sister  to  his  stool  beside  the  fire ;  and 
while  Bob,  turning  up  his  cuffs,  —  as  if,  poor  fellow,  they 
were  capable  of  being  made  more  shabby,  —  compounded 
some  hot  mixture  in  a  jug  with  gin  and  lemons,  and  stirred 
it  round  and  round  and  put  it  on  the  hob  to  simmer.  Master 


60  PARAGRAPHS. 

Peter  and  the  two  ubiquitous  young  Cratchits  went  to  fetch 
the  goose,  with  which  they  soon  returned  in  high  procession. 
Such  a  bustle  ensued  that  you  might  have  thought  a  goose 
the  rarest  of  all  birds,  a  feathered  phenomenon  to  which  a 
black  swan  was  a  matter  of  course ;  and  in  truth  it  was 
something  very  like  it  in  that  house.  Mrs.  Cratchit  made 
the  gravy  ready  beforehand  in  a  little  saucepan,  hissing 
hot;  Master  Peter  mashed  the  potatoes  with  incredible 
vigor ;  Miss  Belinda  sweetened  up  the  apple-sauce ;  Martha 
dusted  the  hot  plates ;  Bob  took  Tiny  Tim  beside  him  in  a 
tiny  corner  at  the  table ;  the  two  young  Cratchits  set  chairs 
for  everybody,  not  forgetting  themselves,  and,  mounting 
guard  upon  their  posts,  crammed  spoons  into  their  mouths, 
lest  they  should  shriek  for  goose  before  their  turn  came  to 
be  helped.  At  last  the  dishes  were  set  on,  and  grace  was 
said.  It  was  succeeded  by  a  breathless  pause,  as  Mrs. 
Cratchit,  looking  slowly  all  along  the  carving-knife,  pre- 
pared to  plunge  it  in  the  breast ;  but  when  she  did,  and 
when  the  long  expected  gush  of  stuffing  issued  forth,  one 
murmur  of  delight  arose  all  round  the  board,  and  even  Tiny 
Tim,  excited  by  the  two  young  Cratchits,  beat  on  the  table 
with  the  handle  of  his  knife,  and  feebly  cried  ^'  Hurrah ! '' 
There  never  was  such  a  goose.  Bob  said  he  didn't  believe 
there  ever  was  such  a  goose  cooked.  Its  tenderness  and 
flavor,  size  and  cheapness,  were  the  themes  of  universal 
admiration.  Eked  out  by  apple-sauce  and  mashed  potatoes, 
it  was  a  sufficient  dinner  for  the  whole  family ;  indeed,  as 
Mrs.  Cratchit  said  with  great  delight  (surveying  one  small 
atom  of  a  bone  upon  the  dish),  they  hadn't  ate  it  all  at 
last !  Yet  every  one  had  had  enough ;  and  the  youngest 
Cratchits  in  particular  were  steeped  in  sage  and  onion  to 
the  eyebrows !  But  now,  the  plates  being  changed  by  Miss 
Belinda,  Mrs.  Cratchit  left  the  room  alone,  —  too  nervous  to 
bear  witnesses,  —  to  take  the  pudding  up,  and  bring  it  in. 


TOPIC  STATEMENT.  61 

Suppose  it  should  not  be  done  enough !  Suppose  it  should 
break  in  turning  out!  Suppose  somebody  should  have  got 
over  the  wall  of  the  back-yard,  and  stolen  it,  while  they  were 
merry  with  the  goose,  —  a  supposition  at  which  the  two 
young  Cratchits  became  livid !  All  sorts  of  horrors  were 
supposed.  Hallo !  A  great  deal  of  steam !  The  pudding 
was  out  of  the  copper.  A  smell  like  a  washing-day  !  That 
was  the  cloth.  A  smell  like  an  eating-house  and  a  pastry- 
cook's next  door  to  each  other,  with  a  laundress's  next  door 
to  that!  That  was  the  pudding!  In  half  a  minute  Mrs. 
Cratchit  entered  —  flashed,  but  smiling  proudly  —  with  the 
pudding,  like  a  speckled  cannon-ball,  so  hard  and  firm, 
blazing  in  half  of  half-a-quartern  of  ignited  brandy,  and 
bedight  with  Christmas  holly  stuck  into  the  top.  Oh,  a 
wonderful  pudding!  Bob  Cratchit  said,  and  calmly  too, 
that  he  regarded  it  as  the  greatest  success  achieved  by  Mrs. 
Cratchit  since  their  marriage.  Mrs.  Cratchit  said  that  now 
the  weight  was  off  her  mind,  she  would  confess  she  had  her 
doubts  about  the  quantity  of  flour.  Everybody  had  some- 
thing to  say  about  it ;  but  nobody  said  or  thought  it  was  at 
all  a  small  pudding  for  a  large  family.  It  would  have  been 
flat  heresy  to  do  so.  Any  Cratchit  would  have  blushed  to 
hint  at  such  a  thing.  At  last  the  dinner  was  all  done,  the 
cloth  was  cleared,  the  hearth  swept,  and  the  fire  made  up. 
The  compound  in  the  jug  being  tasted,  and  considered  per- 
fect, apples  and  oranges  were  put  upon  the  table,  and  a 
shovelful  of  chestnuts  on  the  fire.  Then  all  the  Cratchit 
family  drew  round  the  hearth,  in  what  Bob  Cratchit  called 
a  circle,  meaning  half  a  one ;  and  at  Bob  Cratchit's  elbow 
stood  the  family  display  of  glass,  —  two  tumblers  and  a 
custard-cup  without  a  handle.  These  held  the  hot  stuff 
from  the  jug,  however,  as  well  as  golden  goblets  would  have 
done ;  and  Bob  served  it  out  with  beaming  looks,  while  the 
chestnuts  on  the  fire  sputtered  and  cracked  noisily.     Then 


62  PABAGRAPHS. 

Bob  proposed:  "A  merry  Christmas  to  us  all,  my  dears. 
God  bless  us  ! "  Which  all  the  family  reechoed.  "  God 
bless  us  every  one !  "  said  Tiny  Tim,  the  last  of  all.  He 
sat  very  close  to  his  father's  side,  upon  his  little  stool.  Bob 
held  his  withered  little  hand  in  his,  as  if  he  loved  the  child, 
and  wished  to  keep  him  by  his  side,  and  dreaded  that  he 
might  be  taken  from  him.  .  .  .  Bob  Cratchit  told  them 
how  he  had  a  situation  in  his  eye  for  Master  Peter,  which 
would  bring  in,  if  obtained,  full  five-and-sixpence  weekly. 
The  two  young  Cratchits  laughed  tremendously  at  the  idea 
of  Peter's  being  a  man  of  business;  and  Peter  himself 
looked  thoughtfully  at  the  fire  from  between  his  collars, 
as  if  he  were  deliberating  what  particular  investments  he 
should  favor  when  he  came  into  the  receipt  of  that  bewil- 
dering income.  Martha,  who  was  a  poor  apprentice  at  a 
milliner's,  then  told  them  what  kind  of  work  she  had  to  do, 
and  how  many  hours  she  worked  at  a  stretch,  and  how  she 
meant  to  lie  abed  to-morrow  morning  for  a  good  long  rest ; 
to-morrow  being  a  holiday  she  passed  at  home.  Also,  how 
she  had  seen  a  countess  and  a  lord  some  days  before ;  and 
how  the  lord  "was  much  about  as  tall  as  Peter."  At  which 
Peter  pulled  up  his  collars  so  high  that  you  couldn't  have 
seen  his  head  if  you  had  been  there.  All  this  time  the 
chestnuts  and  the  jug  went  round  and  round ;  and  by-and- 
by  they  had  a  song,  about  a  lost  child  travelling  in  the  snow, 
from  Tiny  Tim,  who  had  a  plaintive  little  voice,  and  sang  it 
very  well  indeed.  There  was  nothing  of  high  mark  in  this. 
They  were  not  a  handsome  family;  they  were  not  well- 
dressed  ;  their  shoes  were  far  from  being  waterproof ; 
their  clothes  were  scanty ;  and  Peter  might  have  known,  and 
very  likely  did,  the  inside  of  a  pawnbroker's.  But  they 
were  happy,  grateful,  pleased  with  one  another,  and  con- 
tented with  the  time ;  and  when  they  faded,  and  looked 
happier  yet  in  the  bright  sprinklings  of  the  Spirit's  torch 


TOPIC  STATEMENT.  63 

at  parting,  Scrooge  had  his  eye  i^pon  them,  and  especially 
on  Tiny  Tim  until  the  last. 

G.  In  Burns's  Tam  o'  Shanter,  Longfellow's  Hiawatha,  Bryant's 
Tkanatopsis,  and  other  poems,  there  are  indentions  indicating  the 
logical  divisions  of  the  poem.  Each  division  corresponds  to  a 
prose  paragraph.  Read  one  of  these  poems  (or  the  portion  of  it 
assigned  by  the  teacher),  and  ask  yourself  why  the  indention  is  in 
each  case  made  where  you  find  it.  Find  or  make  a  topic  statement 
for  each  division.  Then  make  statements  for  the  lesser  divisions 
and  arrange  the  whole  so  as  to  show  the  plan  of  the  poem. 

H.  The  stanzas  of  a  poem  do  not  usually  mark  off  equally  im- 
portant logical  divisions.  The  important  divisions  are  groups  of 
stanzas.  In  Coleridge's  Ancient  Mariner  there  are  seven  stanza- 
groups,  or  parts.  Account  for  this  division.  What  is  the  topic  of 
each  part?  Are  there  lesser  groups  in  each  part?  If  so,  make 
topic  statements  for  all  of  them,  and  arrange  the  whole  so  as  to 
show  the  plan  of  the  poem. 

I.  If  you  should  be  asked  to  reproduce  a  poem  in  which  there 
were  no  marks  of  division  except  the  stanzas,  one  of  the  first  things 
to  do  would  be  to  divide  the  poem  into  its  logical  parts,  its  stanza- 
groups.  Try  this  with  Burns's  Cotter's  Saturday  Night,  Macaulay's 
Horatius,  or  any  other  poem  of  your  own  selection. 

J.  In  the  following  short  poem  by  Tennyson,  as  in  many  short 
poems,  the  stanzas  do  mark  off  logical  divisions  of  equal  impor- 
tance. What  is  the  topic  of  each  stanza?  What  is  the  main 
thought  of  the  poem  ? 

Home  they  brought  her  warrior  dead ; 

She  nor  swooned,  nor  uttered  cry. 
All  her  maidens,  watching,  said, 

"  She  must  weep,  or  she  will  die.  " 

^  Then  they  praised  him,  soft  and  low ; 

Called  him  worthy  to  be  loved : 
Truest  friend  and  noblest  foe. 
Yet  she  neither  spoke  nor  moved 


64  PABAGBAPHS. 

Stole  a  maid  on  from  her  place, 

Lightly  to  the  warrior  stept, 
Took  the  face-cloth  from  the  face ; 

Yet  she  neither  moved  nor  wept. 

Rose  a  nurse  of  ninety  years, 

Set  his  child  upon  her  knee. 
Like  summer  tempest  came  her  tears : 

"  Sweet  my  child,  I  live  for  thee !  " 

How  Paragraphs  Grow. 

19.  We  may  develop  a  topic  statement  into  a  para- 
graph in  five  principal  ways  :  — 

1.  By  repeating  the  topical  idea  in  other  forms, 

2.  By  making  comparisons  or  contrasts, 
3-   By  adding  particulars  and  details, 

4.  By  giving  specific  instances, 

5.  By  showing  the  effects  of  which  the  topic  is  the  cause. 

We  shall  now  illustrate  each  of  these  methods  of 
development. 

By  Repetition. 

20.  1.  A  tree  is  an  underground  creature,  with  its  tail  in 
the  air.  2.  All  its  intelligence  is  in  its  roots.  3.  All  the 
senses  it  has  are  in  its  roots.  4.  Think  what  sagacity  it 
shows  in  its  search  after  food  and  drink !  5.  Somehow  or 
other,  the  rootlets,  which  are  its  tentacles,  find  out  that  there 
is  a  brook  at  a  moderate  distance  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree, 
and  they  make  for  it  with  all  their  might.  6.  They  find 
every  crack  in  the  rocks  where  there  are  a  few  grains  of  the 
nourishing  substance  they  care  for,  and  insinuate  them- 
selves in  its  deepest  recesses.  7.  When  spring  and  summer 
come,  they  let  their  tails  grow,  and  delight  in  whisking  them 


REPETITION,  65 

about  in  the  wind,  or  letting  them  be  whisked  about  by  it ; 
for  these  tails  are  poor  passive  things,  with  very  little  will 
of  their  own,  and  bend  in  whatever  direction  the  wind 
chooses  to  make  them.  8.  The  leaves  make  a  deal  of  noise 
whispering.  9.  I  have  sometimes  thought  I  could  under- 
stand them,  as  they  talk  with  each  other,  and  that  they 
seemed  to  think  they  made  the  wind  as  they  wagge'd  forward 
and  back.  10.  Eemember  what  I  say.  11.  The  next  time 
you  see  a  tree  waving  in  the  wind,  recollect  that  it  is  the  tail 
of  a  great  underground,  many-armed,  polypus-like  creature, 
which  is  as  proud  of  its  caudal  appendage,  especially  iij 
summer-time,  as  a  peacock  of  his  gorgeous  expanse  of 
plumage. — Holmes:   Over  the  Teacups. 

In  the  foregoing  paragraph  the  topic  statement  occu- 
pies the  first  two  sentences :  A  tree  is  an  underground 
creature  with  its  tail  in  the  air  and  all  its  intelligence 
in  its  roots.  A  statement  so  surprising  naturally  calls 
for  some  explanation.  Notice,  now,  how  the  explana- 
tion is  made,  that  is^  how  the  topic  idea  is  developed. 
In  sentence  3,  the  writer  says  over  again,  in  slightly 
different  words,  what  he  said  in  sentence  2,  "All  the 
senses  it  has  [that  is,  all  its  intelligence]  are  in  its 
roots."  In  like  manner  in  sentence  4  he  says  over 
again  what  he  has  said  in  sentences  2  and  3,  "  Think 
what  sagacity  [that  is,  what  intelligence,  what  sense] 
it  shows  in  its  search  after  food  and  drink  "  [that  is,  in 
its  roots].  Just  so  sentences  7-9  are  a  kind  of  repeti- 
tion of  the  idea,  "  An  underground  creature  with  its 
tail  in  the  air,"  and  sentence  11  repeats  in  expanded 
form  the  ideas  of  sentences  1  and  2.  Plainly,  then, 
this  method  of  paragraph  growth  is  by  repetition,  the 
principal  idea  being  repeated  in  detail.     It  should  be 


66  PARAGRAPHS. 

noticed,  however,  that  the  repetition  amounts  to  more 
than  merely  putting  one  word  in  place  of  another ;  the 
idea  grows  by  each  repetition.  Every  repeated  form  of 
the  thought  adds  to  its  clearness,  its  concreteness,  or 
its  emphasis. 

Frequently  a  writer  seems  to  have  said  to  himself, 
"  I  will  say  this  thing  in  another  way,  so  that  my  pre- 
cise meaning  cannot  fail  to  be  understood."  Then  his 
explanations,  whether  they  apparently  repeat  the  topic 
idea  or  not,  have  the  force  of  a  definition,  setting  limits 
to  his  idea,  making  it  narrower  or  broader;  and  he  is 
likely  to  tell,  in  di£Eerent  -ways,  not  only  -what  the  thing  is, 
but  also  what  the  thing  is  not.  In  the  following,  for 
example,  Ruskin,  evidently  wishing  to  make  us  under- 
stand precisely  what  a  piece  of  English  ground  should 
have  in  order  to  be  beautiful,  peaceful,  and  fruitful, 
really  defines  these  three  terms  both  affirmatively  and 
negatively.  The  parts  in  which  he  tells  what  the  piece 
of  English  ground  should  not  have  are  here  printed  in 
italics. 

We  will  try  to  make  some  small  piece  of  English  ground 
beautiful,  peaceful,  and  fruitful.  We  will  have  no  steam- 
engines  upon  it,  and  no  railroads;  we  will  have  no  untended 
or  u7ithought-of  creatures  on  it;  none  wretched,  but  the  sick; 
none  idle,  but  the  dead.  We  will  have  no  liberty  upon  it; 
but  instant  obedience  to  known  law,  and  appointed  persons ; 
no  equality  upon  it;  but  recognition  of  every  betterness  that 
we  can  find,  and  reprobation  of  every  worseness.  When  we 
want  to  go  anywhere,  we  will  go  there  quietly  and  safely, 
not  at  forty  miles  an  hour  in  the  risk  of  our  lives;  when  we 
want  to  carry  anything  anywhere,  we  will  carry  it  either 
on  the  backs  of  beasts,  or  on  our  own,  or  in  carts,  or  in 


REPETITION.  67 

boats ;  we  will  have  plenty  of  flowers  and  vegetables  in  our 
gardens,  plenty  of  corn  and  grass  in  our  fields,  —  and  few 
bricks.  We  will  have  some  music  and  poetry;  the  children 
shall  learn  to  dance  to  it,  and  sing  it ;  perhaps  some  of  the 
old  people,  in  time,  may  also.  We  will  have  some  art, 
moreover ;  we  will  at  least  try  if,  like  the  Greeks,  we  can't 
make  some  pots.  — Ruskin  :  Fors  Clavigera,  Letter  V. 

21.  Assignments  on  Development  by  Repetition. 

A.  In  the  following  paragraphs  find  the  sentences  or  parts  of 
sentences  which  repeat  in  whole  or  in  part  the  thought  of  the 
topic  statement.  In  each  case  determine  whether  the  repetition  is 
or  is  not  of  a  kind  to  make  the  thought  grow.  If  it  is,  point  out 
the  new  element  of  thought  which  the  repetition  adds  to  the  thought 
of  the  topic  statement.  Does  the  thought  thus  repeated  grow 
broader,  or  more  definite,  or  more  emphatic? 

Not  all  of  the  sentences  of  these  paragraphs  are  sentences  of 
repetition  ;  it  is  seldom  that  a  topic  statement  is  developed  by  repe- 
titions alone.  The  uses  of  the  other  sentences  will  appear  in 
subsequent  lessons. 

1.  \^Topic']  1.  Nihilism,  so  far  as  one  can  find  out,  ex- 
presses rather  a  method,  or  a  means,  than  an  end.  2.  It  is 
difficult  to  say  just  what  Nihilism  does  imply.  3.  So  much 
appears  reasonably  certain  —  that  the  primary  object  of  the 
Nihilists  is  destruction ;  that  the  abolition  of  the  existing 
order,  not  the  construction  of  a  new  order,  is  in  their  view ; 
that,  whatever  their  ulterior  designs,  or  whether  or  no  they 
have  any  ultimate  purpose  in  which  they  are  all  or  generally 
agreed,  the  one  object  which  now  draws  and  holds  them^to- 
gether,  in  spite  of  all  the  terrors  of  arbitrary  power,  is  the 
abolition,  not  only  of  all  existing  governments,  but  of  all 
political  estates,  all  institutions,  all  privileges,  all  forms  of 
authority ;  and  that  to  this  is  postponed  whatever  plans, 
purposes,  or  wishes  the  confederation,  or  its  members  indi- 


68  PABAGBAPHS. 

vidually,   may   cherish    concerning    the   reorganization    of 
society.  —  Francis  A.  Walker:  Socialism. 

2.  \^Topic']  1.  From  a  child  I  was  fond  of  reading,  and 
all  the  little  money  that  came  into  my  hands  was  ever  laid 
out  in  books.  2.  Pleased  with  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  my 
first  collection  was  of  John  Bunyan's  works,  in  separate 
little  volumes.  3.  I  afterwards  sold  them  to  enable  me  to 
buy  R.  Burton's  Historical  Collections ;  they  were  small 
chapmen's  books,  and  cheap,  forty  or  fifty  in  all.  4.  My 
father's  little  library  consisted  chiefly  of  books  in  polemic 
divinity,  most  of  which  I  read,  and  have  since  often  regretted 
that,  at  a  time  when  I  had  such  a  thirst  for  knowledge, 
more  proper  books  had  not  fallen  in  my  way,  since  it  was 
now  resolved  I  should  not  be  a  clergyman.  5.  Plutarch's 
Lives  there  was,  in  which  I  read  abundantly,  and  I  still 
think  that  time  spent  to  great  advantage.  6.  There  was 
also  a  book  of  De  Foe's,  called  An  Essay  on  Projects,  and 
another  of  Dr.  Mather's,  called  Essays  to  do  Good,  which 
perhaps  gave  me  a  turn  of  thinking  that  had  an  influence  on 
some  of  the  principal  future  events  of  my  life. 

—  Franklin  :  Autobiography. 

3.  1.  All  the  triumphs  of  truth  and  genius  over  prejudice 
and  power,  in  every  country  and  in  every  age,  have  been  the 
triumphs  of  Athens.  2.  Wherever  a  few  great  minds  have 
made  a  stand  against  violence  and  fraud  in  the  cause  of 
liberty  and  reason,  there  has  been  her  spirit  in  the  midst  of 
them  :  inspiring,  encouraging,  consoling ;  —  by  the  lonely 
lamp  of  Erasmus ;  by  the  restless  bed  of  Pascal ;  in  the  tri- 
bune of  Mirabeau ;  in  the  cell  of  Galileo ;  on  the  scaffold  of 
Sidney.  \^Topic]  3.  But  who  shall  estimate  her  influence 
on  private  happiness  ?  4.  Who  shall  say  how  many  thou- 
sa'nds  have  been  made  wiser,  happier,  and  better,  by  those 
pursuits  in  which  she  has  taught  mankind  to  engage ;  to  how 


BEPETITION.  69 

many  the  studies  that  took  their  rise  from  her  have  been 
wealth  in  poverty,  —  liberty  in  bondage,  —  health  in  sick- 
ness, —  society  in  solitude  ?  5.  Her  power  is  indeed  mani- 
fested at  the  bar,  in  the  senate,  in  the  field  of  battle,  in 
the  schools  of  philosophy.  6.  But  these  are  not  her  glory. 
7.  Wherever  literature  consoles  sorrow,  or  assuages  pain 
—  wherever  it  brings  gladness  to  eyes  which  fail  with  wake- 
fulness and  tears,  and  ache  for  the  dark  house  and  the 
long  sleep,  —  there  is  exhibited  in  its  noblest  form  the 
immortal  influence  of  Athens. 

—  Macaulay  :  Athenian  Orators. 

4.  \_Topic]  1.  The  honorable  member  complained  that  I 
had  slept  on  his  speech.  2.  I  must  have  slept  on  it,  or  not 
slept  at  all.  3.  The  moment  the  honorable  member  sat 
down,  his  friend  from  Missouri  rose,  and,  with  much  honeyed 
commendation  of  the  speech,  suggested  that  the  impressions 
which  it  had  produced  were  too  charming  and  delightful  to 
be  disturbed  by  other  sentiments,  or  other  sounds,  and  pro- 
posed that  the  Senate  should  adjourn.  4.  Would  it  have 
been  quite  amiable  in  me.  Sir,  to  interrupt  this  excellent 
good  feeling  ?  5.  Must  I  not  have  been  absolutely  malicious, 
if  I  could  have  thrust  myself  forward  to  destroy  sensations 
thus  pleasing  ?  6.  Was  it  not  much  better  and  kinder,  both 
to  sleep  upon  them  myself,  and  to  allow  others  also  the 
pleasure  of  sleeping  upon  them  ?  7.  But  if  it  be  meant,  by 
sleeping  upon  his  speech,  that  I  took  time  to  prepare  a  reply 
to  it,  it  is  quite  a  mistake.  8.  Owing  to  other  engagements, 
I  could  not  employ  even  the  interval  between  the  adjourn- 
ment of  the  Senate  and  its  meeting  the  next  morning  in 
attention  to  the  subject  of  this  debate.  9.  Nevertheless, 
Sir,  the  mere  matter  of  fact  is  undoubtedly  true.  10.  I  did 
sleep  on  the  gentleman's  speech,  and  slept  soundly.  11.  And 
I  slept  equally  well  on  his  speech  of  yesterday,  to  which 


70  PARAGRAPHS. 

I  am  now  replying.  12.  It  is  quite  possible  that  in  this 
respect,  also,  I  possess  some  advantage  over  the  honorable 
member,  attributable,  doubtless,  to  a  cooler  temperament  on 
my  part ;  for,  in  truth,  I  slept  upon  his  speeches  remarkably 
well.  —  Webster  :  Reply  to  Hayne. 

5.  [^Topic]  1.  But  the  gentleman  inquires  why  7ie  was  made 
the  object  of  such  a  reply  ?  2.  Why  was  he  singled  out  ? 
3.  If  an  attack  has  been  made  on  the  East,  he,  he  assures  us, 
did  not  begin  it;  it' was  made  by  the  gentleman  from  Mis- 
souri. 4.  Sir,  I  answered  the  gentleman's  s-peech  because 
I  happened  to  hear  it;  and  because,  also,  I  chose  to  give 
an  answer  to  that  speech,  which,  if  unanswered,  I  thought 
most  likely  to  produce  injurious  impressions.  5.  I  did 
not  stop  to  inquire  who  was  the  original  drawer  of  the 
bill.  6.  I  found  a  responsible  indarser  before  me,  and  it 
was  my  purpose  to  hold  him  liable,  and  to  bring  him  to 
his  just  responsibility  without  delay. 

—  Webster  :  Reply  to  Hayne. 

6.  \_Topic]  1.  Mountains  are  to  the  rest  of  the  body  of 
the  earth  what  violent  muscular -action  is  to  the  body  of  man. 
2.  The  muscles  and  tendons  of  its  anatomy  are,  in  the 
mountain,  brought  out  with  fierce  and  convulsive  energy, 
full  of  expression,  passion,  and  strength ;  the  plains  and  the 
lower  hills  are  the  repose  and  the  effortless  motion  of  the 
frame,  when  its  muscles  lie  dormant  and  concealed  beneath 
the  lines  of  its  beauty,  yet  ruling. those  lines  in  their  every 
undulation.  3.  This,  then,  is  the  first  grand  principle  of  the 
truth  of  the  earth.  4.  The  spirit  of  the  hills  is  action ;  that 
of  the  lowlands,  repose ;  and  between  these  there  is  to  be 
found  every  variety  of  motion  and  of  rest;  from  the  inac- 
tive plain,  sleeping  like  the  firmament,  with  cities  for  stars, 
to  the  fiery  peaks,  which,  with  heaving  bosoms  and  exulting 
limbs,  with  the  clouds  drifting  like  hair  from  their  bright 


REPETITION.  71 

foreheads,  lift  up  their  Titan  hands  to  Heaven,  saying,  *'  I 
live  forever ! " 

—  RusKiN :  Modern  Painters,  vol.  I,  pt.  ii,  sec.  iv,  chap.  i. 

7.  [  Topic']  1.  Nor  must  I  forget  the  suddenly  changing 
seasons  of  the  Northern  clime.  2.  There  is  no  long  and 
lingering  spring,  unfolding  leaf  and  blossom  one  by  one  ;  no 
long  and  lingering  autumn,  pompous  with  many-colored  leaves 
and  the  glow  of  Indian  summers.  3.  But  winter  and  sum- 
mer are  wonderful,  and  pass  into  each  other.  4.  The  quail 
has  hardly  ceased  piping  in  the  corn,  when  winter  from  the 
folds  of  trailing  clouds  sows  broadcast  over  the  land  snow, 
icicles,  and  rattling  hail.  5.  The  days  wane  apace.  6.  Ere- 
long the  sun  hardly  rises  above  the  horizon,  or  does  not  rise 
at  all.  7.  The  moon  and  the  stars  shine  through  the  day  ; 
only,  at  noon,  they  are  pale  and  wan,  and  in  the  southern 
sky  a  red,  fiery  glow  as  of  sunset  burns  along  the  horizon 
and  then  goes  out.  8.  And  pleasantly  under  the  silver 
moon,  and  under  the  silent,  solemn  stars,  ring  the  steel 
shoes  of  the  skaters  on  the  frozen  sea,  and  voices,  and  the 
sound  of  bells. 

—  Longfellow:  Note  to  the  Children  of  the  Lord^s  Supper. 

8.  1.  The  troops  were  now  to  be  disbanded.  2.  Fifty 
thousand  men,  accustomed  to  the  profession  of  arms,  were 
at  once  thrown  on  the  world ;  and  experience  seemed  to 
warrant  the  belief  that  this  change  would  produce  much 
misery  and  crime,  that  the  discharged  veterans  would  be 
seen  begging  in  every  street,  or  would  be  driven  by  hunger 
to  pillage.  \^Topic']  3.  But  no  such  result  followed.  4.  In 
a  few  months  there  remained  not  a  trace  indicating  that 
the  most  formidable  army  in  the  world  had  just  been  ab- 
sorbed into  the  mass  of  the  community.  5.  The  Royalists 
themselves  confessed  that  in  every  department  of  honest 
industry,  the  discarded  warriors   prospered   beyond   other 


72  PARAGRAPHS. 

men  ;  that  none  was  charged  with  any  theft  or  robbery  ;  that 
none  was  heard  to  ask  an  alms ;  and  that,  if  a  baker,  a  mason, 
or  a  wagoner  attracted  notice  by  his  diligence  and  sobriety, 
he  was  in  all  probability  one  of  Oliver's  old  soldiers. 

—  Macaulay:  History  of  England ,  I,  chap.  ii. 

B.  Develop  each  of  the  following  topic  statements  into  a  brief 
paragraph  by  repetition  of  the  idea.  Remember  that  in  the  repe- 
tition it  is  not  enough  to  put  one  word  in  place  of  another.  There 
must  be  not  only  a  change  of  words  but  a  growth  of  ideas.  With 
each  sentence  the  thought  should  become  larger,  or  more  definite, 
or  more  emphatic.  If  the  repetition  does  not  immediately  suggest 
itself,  the  use  of  such  phrases  as  "  in  other  words,"  "  to  speak  more 
plainly,"  "to  put  the  matter  more  briefly  (precisely,  definitely, 
concretely,  specifically,  forcibly),"  will  sometimes  start  the  train 
of  thought.  Note  that  the  significant  part  of  each  topic  statement 
is  the  thing  predicated  of  the  topic  :  in  1,  "  sustained  effort" ;  in  2, 
"  jumped  at  conclusions  " ;  in  3,  "  forever  changing  " ;  in  4,  "  no 
hero  " ;  in  5,  "  reforming."  These  voi'ds  of  predication  give  the 
cue  for  the  repetition. 

1.  It  requires  sustained  effort  to  make  a  good  writer. 

2.  In  stating  his  reasons,  he  never  jumped  at  conclusions. 

3.  Fashions  in  dress  are  forever  changing. 

4.  The  play  As  Tou  Like  It  has  no  hero. 

5.  City  governments  in  America  need  reforming. 

6.  There  are  books  and  books. 

7.  Emerson  says,  "  The  boy  is  a  Greek ;  the  youth  ro- 
mantic ;  the  adult,  reflective." 

8.  Physical  training  should  be  compulsory  in  schools. 

9.  There  will  always  be  need  of  charity  in  the  world. 
10.  A  good  partisan  is  not  always  a  good  citizen. 

By  Comparison  and  Contrast. 

22.    Instead  of   telling  what  a  thing  is  or  is  not,  a 

writer  may  tell  what  it  is   like  or  ivhat  it  is  not   like. 


COMPARISON  AND   CONTRAST.  73 

Thus  Macaulay,  in  his  essay  on  history,  develops  the 
idea  "  Effect  of  historical  reading  upon  the  student's 
mind,"  by  comparing  it  to  the  effect  of  foreign  travel. 

1.  The  effect  of  historical  reading  is  analogous,  in  many 
respects,  to  that  produced  by  foreign  travel.  2.  The  student, 
like  the  tourist,  is  transported  into  a  new  state  of  society. 
3.  He  sees  new  fashions.  4.  He  hears  new  modes  of  expres- 
sion. 5.  His  mind  is  enlarged  by  contemplating  the  wide 
diversities  of  laws,  of  morals,  and  of  manners.  6.  But  men 
may  travel  far,  and  return  with  minds  as  contracted  as  if 
they  had  never  stirred  from  their  own  market-town.  7.  In 
the  same  manner,  men  may  know  the  dates  of  many  battles 
and  the  genealogies  of  many  royal  houses,  and  yet  be  no 
wiser.  8.  Most  people  look  at  past  times  as  princes  look 
at  foreign  countries.  9.  More  than  one  illustrious  stranger 
has  landed  on  our  island  amidst  the  shouts  of  a  mob,  has 
dined  with  the  King,  has  hunted  with  the  master  of  the 
stag-hounds,  has  seen  the  Guards  reviewed,  and  a  Knight  of 
the  Garter  installed,  has  cantered  along  Regent  Street,  has 
visited  St.  PauPs,  and  noted  down  its  dimensions ;  and  has 
then  departed,  thinking  that  he  has  seen  England.  10.  He 
has,  in  fact,  seen  a  few  public  buildings,  public  men,  and 
public  ceremonies.  11.  But  of  the  vast  and  complex  system 
of  society,  of  the  fine  shades  of  national  character,  of  the 
practical  operation  of  government  and  laws,  he  knows  noth- 
ing. 12.  He  who  would  understand  these  things  rightly 
must  not  confine  his  observations  to  palaces  and  solemn 
days.  13.  He  must  see  ordinary  men  as  they  appear  in 
their  ordinary  business  and  in  their  ordinary  pleasures. 
14.  He  must  mingle  in  the  crowds  of  the  exchange  and 
the  coffee-house.  15.  He  must  obtain  admittance  to  the 
convivial  table  and  the  domestic  hearth.  16.  He  must  bear 
with  vulgar  expressions.      17.    He  must  not   shrink  from 


74  PARAGRAPHS. 

exploring  even  the  retreats  of  misery.  18.  He  who  wishes 
to  understand  the  condition  of  mankind  in  former  ages 
must  proceed  on  the  same  principle.  19.  If  he  attends  only 
to  public  transactions,  to  wars,  congresses,  and  debates, 
his  studies  will  be  as  unprofitable  as  the  travels  of  those 
imperial,  royal,  and  serene  sovereigns  who  form  their  judg- 
ment of  our  island  from  having  gone  in  state  to  a  few  fine 
sights  and  from  having  held  formal  conferences  with  a  few 
great  officers. 

It  should  be  noted  that,  while  making  the  comparison 
between  the  effect  of  historical  reading  and  the  effect 
of  foreign  travel,  Macaulay  also  employs  a  contrast. 
The  good  effects  as  seen  in  the  thorough  student  and 
traveller  (sentences  2  to  5  and  12  to  18)  are  in  con- 
trast with  the  bad  as  seen  in  the  careless  or  hasty 
student  and  traveller  (sentences  6  to  11,  and  19). 
Whenever  an  idea  is  developed  both  positively  and 
negatively,  as  in  the  last  two  quotations,  the  result 
is,  of  course,  a  contrast.  This  method  of  developing 
ideas  by  comparison  and^  contrast  is  used  in  various 
ways,  but  those  just  indicated  are  the  most  common. 
In  the  following  we  gain  a  clearer  idea  both  of  Whit- 
tier  and  of  Franklin  by  being  told  in  what  respects 
they  were  alike  and  in  what  respects  they  differed. 
In  this,  no  attempt  is  made  to  conceal  the  method 
employed.  It  is  announced  in  the  very  first  sentence, 
the  topic  statement. 

Unlike  as  Whittier  and  Franklin  were  in  many  respects, 
they  were  alike  in  others.  Both  had  the  sympathy  with  the 
lowly  which  comes  of  early  similar  experience.  Both  learned 
a  handicraft,  for  Franklin  set  type  and  worked  a  printing- 
press,  and  Whittier  made  slippers.     To  both  of  them  litera- 


COMPARISON  AND  CONTRAST.  75 

ture  was  a  means,  rather  than  an  end  in  itself.  Verse  to 
Whittier,  and  prose  to  Franklin,  was  a  weapon  to  be  used  in 
the  good  fight.  In  Whittier's  verse,  as  in  Franklin's  prose, 
there  was  the  same  pithy  directness  which  made  their  words 
go  home  to  the  hearts  of  the  plain  people,  whom  they  both 
understood  and  represented.  To  Franklin  was  given  the 
larger  life  and  the  greater  range  of  usefulness ;  but 
Whittier  always  did  with  all  his  might  the  duty  that  lay 
before  him.  While  Franklin  gained  polish  by  travel  and 
by  association  with  citizens  of  the  world,  Whittier  was 
the  only  one  of  the  greater  American  authors  who  never 
went  to  Europe,  and  he  kept  to  the  end  not  a  little  of 
his  rustic  simplicity. 

While  Whittier  was  practical,  as  becomes  a  New  Eng- 
lander,  he  had  not  the  excessive  common  sense  which  char- 
acterizes Franklin,  and  he  lacked  also  Franklin's  abundant 
humor.  But  the  poet  was  not  content,  as  Franklin  was,  with 
showing  that  honesty  is  the  best  policy,  and  that  in  the  long 
run  vice  leads  to  ruin ;  he  scourged  evil  with  the  wrath  of 
a  Hebrew  prophet.  Except  one  or  another  of  his  ballads, 
none  of  his  poems  was  written  for  its  own  sake ;  they  were 
nearly  all  intended  to  further  a  cause  he  held  dear,  or  to 
teach  a  lesson  he  thought  needful. 

—  Brander  Matthews  :  St.  Nicholas,  22 :  773. 

23.    Assignments  on  Development  by  Comparison 
and  Contrast. 

A.  Point  out  the  comparisons  and  contrasts  by  which  the  topic 
idea  is  developed  in  the  following  selections. 

1.  Of  ghosts  I  have  seldom  dreamed,  so  far  as  I  can 
remember;  in  fact  I  have  never  dreamed  of  the  kind  of 
ghosts  that  we  are  all  more  or  less  afraid  of,  though  I  have 
dreamed  rather  often  of  the  spirits  of  departed  friends. 
But  I  once  dreamed  of  dying,  and  the  reader,   who  has 


76  PARAGRAPHS. 

never  died  yet,  may  be  interested  to  know  what  it  is  like. 
According  to  this  experience  of  mine,  w^hich  I  do  not  claim 
is  typical,  it  is  like  a  fire  kindling  in  an  air-tight  stove  with 
paper  and  shavings ;  the  gathering  smoke  and  gases  sud- 
denly burst  into  flame,  and  puff  the  door  out,  and  all  is 
over.  —  W.  D.  Howells  :  Harper's  Magazine,  90  :  840. 

2.  The  vast  results  obtained  by  science  are  won  by  no 
mystical  faculties,  by  no  mental  processes,  other  than  those 
which  are  practised  by  every  one  of  us  in  the  humblest  and 
meanest  affairs  of  life.  A  detective  policeman  discovers  a 
burglar  from  the  marks  made  by  his  shoe,  by  a  mental  pro- 
cess identical  with  that  by  which  Cuvier  restored  the  extinct 
animals  of  Montmartre  from  fragments  of  their  bones.  Kor 
does  that  process  of  induction  and  deduction  by  which  a 
lady,  finding  a  stain  of  a  particular  kind  upon  her  dress, 
concludes  that  somebody  has  upset  the  inkstand  thereon, 
differ  in  any  way  from  that  by  which  Adams  and  Leverrier 
discovered  a  new  planet.  The  man  of  science,  in  fact, 
simply  uses  with  scrupulous  exactness  the  methods  which 
we  all  habitually  and  at  every  moment  use  carelessly. 

—  Huxley  :  Lay  Sermons,  78. 

3.  You  of  the  North  have  had  drawn  for  you  with  a 
master's  hand  the  picture  of  your  returning  armies.  Ypu 
have  heard  how,  in  the  pomp  and  circumstance  of  war,  they 
came  back  to  you,  marching  with  proud  and  victorious  tread, 
reading  their  glory  in  a  nation's  eyes !  Will  you  bear  with 
me  while  I  tell  you  of  another  army  that  sought  its  home  at 
the  close  of  the  late  war  —  an  army  that  marched  home  in 
defeat  and  not  in  victory,  in  pathos  and  not  in  splendor,  but 
in  glory  that  equalled  yours,  and  to  hearts  as  loving  as  ever 
welcomed  heroes  home  ?  Let  me  picture  to  you  the  foot- 
sore Confederate  soldier,  as,  buttoning  up  in  his  faded  gray 
jacket  the  parole  which  was  to  bear  testimony  to  his  chil- 


COMPARISON   AND    CONTRAST,  77 

dren  of  his  fidelity  and  faith,  he  turned  his  face  southward 
from  Appomattox,  in  April,  1865.  Think  of  him  as,  ragged, 
half -starved,  heavy-hearted,  enfeebled  by  want  and  wounds, 
having  fought  to  exhaustion,  he  surrenders  his  gun,  wrings 
the  hands  of  his  comrades  in  silence,  and  lifting  his  tear- 
stained  and  pallid  face  for  the  last  time  to  the  graves  that 
dot  the  old  Virginia  hills,  pulls  his  gray  cap  over  his  brow 
and  begins  the  slow  and  painful  journey.  What  does  he 
find  —  let  me  ask  you,  who  went  to  your  homes  eager  to 
find  in  the  welcome  you  had  justly  earned,  full  payment  for 
four  years'  sacrifice  —  what  does  he  find  when,  having  fol- 
lowed the  battle-stained  cross  against  overwhelming  odds, 
dreading  death  not  half  so  much  as  surrender,  he  reaches 
the  home  he  left  so  prosperous  and  beautiful  ?  He  finds 
his  house  in  ruins,  his  farm  devastated,  his  slaves  free, 
his  stock  killed,  his  barns  empty,  his  trade  destroyed,  his 
money  worthless ;  his  social  system,  feudal  in  its  mag- 
nificence, swept  away;  his  people  without  law  or  legal 
status,  his  comrades  slain,  and  the  burdens  of  others  heavy 
on  his  shoulders.  Crushed  by  defeat,  his  very  traditions 
are  gone;  without  money,  credit,  employment,  material, 
or  training ;  and  beside  all  this,  confronted  with  the  gravest 
problem  that  ever  met  human  intelligence  —  the  estab- 
lishing of  a  status  for  the  vast  body  of  his  liberated  slaves. 

—  Grady:  Speeches. 

4.  The  Life  of  Johnson  is  assuredly  a  great,  a  very  great 
work.  Homer  is  not  more  decidedly  the  first  of  heroic 
poets,  Shakespeare  is  not  more  decidedly  the  first  of  drama- 
tists, Demosthenes  is  not  more  decidedly  the  first  of  orators, 
than  Boswell  is  the  first  of  biographers.  He  has  no  second. 
He  has  distanced  all  his  competitors  so  decidedly  that  it  is 
not  worth  while  to  place  them.  Eclipse  is  first,  the  rest 
nowhere.  — Macaulay:  BosweWs  Life  of  Johnson. 


78  PARAGBAPHS.  ' 

5.  A  constitutional  statesman  is  in  general  a  man  of 
common  opinions  and  uncommon  abilities.  The  reason  is 
obvious.  When  we  speak  of  a  free  government,  we  mean 
a  government  in  which  the  sovereign  power  is  divided,  in 
which  a  single  decision  is  not  absolute,  where  argument  has 
an  office.  The  essence  of  the  "  gouvernement  des  avocats," 
as  the  Emperor  Nicholas  called  it,  is  that  you  must  persuade 
so  many  persons.  The  appeal  is  not  to  the  solitary  decision 
of  a  single  statesman ;  not  to  Eichelieu  or  Nesselrode  alone 
in  his  closet;  but  to  the  jangled  mass  of  men  with  a  thou- 
sand pursuits,  a '  thousand  interests,  a  thousand  various 
habits.  Public  opinion,  as  it  is  said,  rules ;  and  public 
opinion  is  the  opinion  of  the  average  man.  Fox  used  to 
say  of  Burke :  "  Burke  is  a  wise  man ;  but  he  is  wise  too 
soon."  The  average  man  will  not  bear  this.  He  is  a  cool, 
common  person,  with  a  considerate  air,  with  figures  in  his 
mind,  with  his  own  business  to  attend  to,  with  a  set  of 
ordinary  opinions  arising  from  and  suited  to  ordinary  life. 
He  can't  bear  novelty  or  originalities.  He  says :  "  Sir,  I 
never  heard  such  a  thing  before  in  my  life  "  ;  and  he  thinks 
this  a  reductio  ad  absurdu7n.  You  may  see  his  taste  by  the 
reading  of  which  he  approves.  Is  there  a  more  splendid 
monument  of  talent  and  industry  than  the  Times?  No 
wonder  that  the  average  man  —  that  any  one — ^  believes  in 
it.  As  Carlyle  observes :  "  Let  the  highest  intellect  able 
to  write  epics  try  to  write  such  a  leader  for  the  morning 
newspapers,  it  cannot  do  it;  the  highest  intellect  will  fail." 
But  did  you  ever  see  anything  there  you  had  never  seen 
before  ?  Out  of  the  million  articles  that  everybody  has 
read,  can  any  one  person  trace  a  single  marked  idea  to  a 
single  article  ?  Where  are  the  deep  theories,  and  the  wise 
axioms,  and  the  everlasting  sentiments  which  the  writers  of 
the  most  influential  publication  in  the  world  have  been  the 
first  to  communicate  to  an  ignorant  species  ?     Such  writers 


COMPARISON  AND   CONTRAST.  79 

are  far  too  shrewd.  The  two  million,  or  whatever  number 
of  copies  it  may  be,  they  publish  are  not  purchased  because 
the  buyers  wish  to  know  new  truth.  The  purchaser  desires 
an  article  which  he  can  appreciate  at  sight ;  which  he  can 
lay  down  and  say :  ^'  An  excellent  article,  very  excellent ; 
exactly  my  ovm  sentiments."  Original  theories  give  trouble ; 
besides,  a  grave  man  on  the  Coal  Exchange  does  not  desire 
to  be  an  apostle  of  novelties  among  the  contemporaneous 
dealers  in  fuel ;  —  he  wants  to  be  provided  with  remarks  he 
can  make  on  the  topics  of  the  day  which  will  not  be  known 
not  to  be  his;  which  are  not  too  profound;  which  he  can 
fancy  the  paper  only  reminded  him  of.  And  just  in  the 
same  way,  precisely  as  the  most  popular  political  paper  is 
not  that  which  is  abstractedly  the  best  or  most  instructive, 
but  that  which  most  exactly  takes  up  the  minds  of  men 
where  it  finds  them,  catches  the  floating  sentiment  of  so- 
ciety, puts  it  in  such  a  form  as  society  can  fancy  would  con- 
vince another  society  which  did  not  believe, — ^  so  the  most 
influential  of  constitutional  statesmen  is  the  one  who  most 
felicitously  expresses  the  creed  of  the  moment,  who  admin- 
isters it,  who  embodies  it  in  laws  and  institutions,  who 
gives  it  the  highest  life  it  is  capable  of,  who  induces  the 
average  man  to  think :  "  I  could  not  have  done  it  any  better, 
if  I  had  had  time  myself." 

—  Bagehot  :   The  English  Constitution,  p.  421. 

6.  When  the  example  in  our  Latin  Grammar  tells  us  that 
Mors  communis  est  omnibus,  it  states  a  truism  of  considerable 
interest,  indeed,  to  the  person  in  whose  particular  case  it  is 
to  be  illustrated,  but  neither  new  nor  startling.  No  one 
would  think  of  citing  it,  whether  to  produce  conviction  or 
to  heighten  discourse.  Yet  mankind  are  agreed  in  finding 
something  more  poignant  in  the  same  reflection  when  Horace 
tells  us  that  the  palace  as  well  as  the  hovel  shudders  at  the 


80  PARAGRAPHS, 

indiscriminating  foot  of  Death.  Here  is  something  more 
than  the  dry  statement  of  a  truism.  The  difference  between 
the  two  is  that  between  a  lower  and  a  higher ;  it  is,  in  short, 
the  difference  between  prose  and  poetry.  The  oyster  has 
begun,  at  least,  to  secrete  its  pearl,  something  identical  with 
its  shell  in  substance,  but  in  sentiment  and  association  how 
unlike !  Malherbe  takes  the  same  image  and  makes  it  a 
little  more  picturesque,  though,  at  the  same  time,  I  fear,  a 
little  more  Parisian,  too,  when  he  says  that  the  sentinel 
pacing  before  the  gate  of  the  Louvre  cannot  forbid  Death 
an  entrance  to  the  King.  And  how  long  had  not  that  com- 
parison between  the  rose's  life  and  that  of  the  maiden  dying 
untimely  been  a  commonplace  when  the  same  Malherbe  made 
it  irreclaimably  his  own  by  mere  felicity  of  phrase.  We  do 
not  ask  where  people  got  their  hints,  but  what  they  made 
out  of  them.  The  commonplace  is  unhappily  within  reach 
of  us  all,  and  unhappily,  too,  they  are  rare  who  can  give  it 
novelty  and  even  invest  it  with  a  kind  of  grandeur  as  Gray 
knew  how  to  do.  —  Lowell  :  Essay  on  Gray. 

7.  The  modern  type-writing  machine  has  the  advantage 
of  making  all  words  equally  legible,  but  the  receiver  of  the 
printed  letter  is  likely  to  feel  on  opening  it  a  slight  per- 
ceptible shock  of  the  kind  always  caused  by  a  want  of  con- 
sideration. The  letter  so  printed  is  undoubtedly  easier  to 
read  than  all  but  the  very  clearest  manuscript,  and  so  far  it 
may  be  considered  a  politeness  to  use  the  instrument ;  but 
unluckily  it  is  impersonal,  so  that  the  performer  on  the  in- 
strument seems  far  removed  from  the  receiver  of  the  letter 
and  not  in  that  direct  communication  with  him  which  would 
be  apparent  in  an  autograph.  The  effect  on  the  mind  is 
almost  like  that  of  a  printed  circular,  or  at  the  least  of  a 
letter  which  has  been  dictated  to  a  shorthand  writer. 

—  Hamerton  :  Human  Intercourse. 


COMPARISON  AND   CONTRAST,  81 

8.  Mr.  Beecher  went  on  to  show  how  the  North  could  not 
help  fighting  when  it  was  attacked,  and  to  give  the  reasons 
that  made  it  necessary  to  fight,  reasons  which  none  but  a 
consistent  Friend,  or  avowed  non-resistant,  can  pretend  to  dis- 
pute. His  ordinary  style  in  speaking  is  pointed,  staccatoed, 
as  is  that  of  most  successful  extemporaneous  speakers ;  he 
is  "  short-gaited '^ ;  the  movement  of  his  thoughts  is  that  of 
the  chopping  sea,  rather  than  the  long,  rolling,  rhythmical 
wave-procession  of  phrase-balancing  rhetoricians.  But  when 
the  lance  has  pricked  him  deep  enough,  when  the  red  flag 
has  flashed  in  his  face  often  enough,  when  the  fireworks 
have  hissed  and  sputtered  around  him  long  enough,  when 
the  cheers  have  warmed  him  so  that  all  his  life  is  roused, 
then  his  intellectual  sparkle  becomes  a  steady  glow,  and  his 
nimble  sentences  change  their  form  and  become  long-drawn, 
stately  periods. 

—  O.  W.  Holmes:  Atlantic  Monthly,  January,  1864. 

9.  Certainly,  gentlemen,  it  ought  to  be  the  happiness  and 
glory  of  a  representative  to  live  in  the  strictest  union,  the 
closest  correspondence,  and  the  most  unreserved  communica- 
tion with  his  constituents.  Their  wishes  ought  to  have  great 
weight  with  him  ;  their  opinion  high  respect ;  their  business 
unremitted  attention.  It  is  his  duty  to  sacrifice  his  repose, 
his  pleasures,  his  satisfactions,  to  theirs ;  and  above  all,  ever, 
and  in  all  cases,  to  prefer  their  interest  to  his  own.  But, 
his  unbiassed  opinion,  his  mature  judgment,  his  enlightened 
conscience,  he  ought  not  to  sacrifice  to  you,  to  any  man,  or 
to  any  set  of  men  living.  These  he  does  not  derive  from 
your  pleasure ;  no,  nor  from  the  law  and  the  constitution. 
They  are  a  trust  from  Providence,  for  the  abuse  of  which  he 
is  deeply  answerable.  Your  representative  owes  you  not 
his  industry  only,  but  his  judgment ;  which  he  betrays,  in- 
stead of  serving  you,  if  he  sacrifices  it  to  your  opinion. 


82  PARAGRAPHS, 

My  worthy  colleague  says,  his  will  ought  to  be  subservi- 
ent to  yours.  If  that  be  all,  the  thing  is  innocent.  If  gov- 
ernment were  a  matter  of  will  upon  any  side,  yours,  without 
question,  ought  to  be  superior.  But  government  and  legis- 
lation are  matters  of  reason  and  judgment,  and  not  of 
inclination ;  and  what  sort  of  reason  is  that,  in  which  the 
determination  precedes  the  discussion ;  in  which  one  set  of 
men  deliberate,  and  another  decide ;  and  where  those  who 
form  the  conclusion  are  perhaps  three  hundred  miles  distant 
from  those  who  hear  the  arguments  ? 

To  deliver  an  opinion,  is  the  right  of  all  men ;  that  of 
constituents  is  a  weighty  and  respectable  opinion,  which  a 
representative  ought  always  to  rejoice  to  hear ;  and  which 
he  ought  always  most  seriously  to  consider.  But  autJiorita- 
tive  instructions,  mandates  issued,  which  the  member  is 
bound  blindly  and  implicitly  to  obey,  to  vote,  and  to  argue 
for,  though  contrary  to  the  clearest  conviction  of  his  judg- 
ment and  conscience,  —  these  are  things  utterly  unknown 
to  the  laws  of  this  land,  and  which  arise  from  a  funda- 
mental mistake  of  the  whole  order  and  tenor  of  our  constitu- 
tion. —  Burke  :  Speech  to  the  Electors  of  Bristol. 

10.  Madison  spoke  in  the  same  strain.  He  saw  no  danger 
in  a  title.  He  did  not  believe  that  a  President,  clothed 
with  all  the  powers  of  the  Constitution  and  loaded  down 
with  all  the  titles  of  Europe  and  Asia,  would  be  a  dangerous 
person  to  American  liberty.  He  objected  to  the  principle. 
If,  said  he,  we  give  titles,  we  must  either  borrow  or  invent 
them.  If  we  invent  and  deck  out  an  airy  being  of  our 
creation,  it  is  a  great  chance,  but  its  fantastic  properties 
render  the  empty  phantom  ridiculous  and  absurd.  If  we 
borrow,  our  servile  imitation  will  be  odious.  We  must 
copy  from  the  pompous  monarchs  of  the  East,  or  we  must 
follow  the  inferior  monarchs  of  Europe.     In  either  case  the 


COMPARISON  AND  CONTRAST.  83 

splendid  tinsel   and   the   gorgeous  robe   will  disgrace  the 
manly  shoulders  of  our  chief. 
—  McMaster  :  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States, 
1,542. 

»      B.    These  paragraphs  as  originally  written  contained  two  ideas 
in  contrast.     Supply  the  omitted  portion. 

1.  Some  persons  are  very  reluctant  to  admit  that  any 
race  of  men  is  marked  by  a  fixed  and  permanent  character- 
istic of  inferiority  to  the  others,  for  fear  that  this  will  be 
made  an  excuse  by  unjust  and  wicked  men  for  treating 
them  oppressively  and  cruelly.     But . 

2.  There  is  one  thing  very  curious  about  this  class  of 
animals  that  get  their  living  in  a  great  measure  under 
water,  and  are  consequently  obliged  to  be  often  submerged, 
even  in  the  coldest  winter  weather,  and  that  is  that  their  fur 
becomes  very  little  wet  by  such  immersion.  A  dog,  after 
plunging  into  a  river,  comes  out  wet  to  the  skin,  but  the  fur 
of  a  beaver  or  a  mink . 

3.  We  all  know  how  beautiful  and  noble  modesty  is ; 
how  we  all  admire  it ;  how  it  raises  a  man  in  our  eyes  to 
see  him  afraid  of  boasting ;  never  showing  off ;  never  push- 
ing himself  forward.     Whenever,  on  the  other  hand . 

4.  A  Venetian  who  enters  or  leaves  any  place  of  public 
resort  touches  his  hat  to  the  company,  and  one  day  at  the 
restaurant  some  ladies,  who  had  been  dining  there,  said 
"  Complimenti ! "  on  going  out  with  a  grace  that  went  near 
to  make  the  beef-steak  tender.  It  is  this  uncostly  gentle- 
ness of  bearing  which  gives  a  winning  impression  of  the 
whole  Venetian  people,  whatever  selfishness  or  real  dis- 
courtesy lie  beneath  it.  At  home  [in  the  United  States]  it 
sometimes  seems . 


84  PARAGRAPHS. 

5.  Whittier  was  a  born  poet.  He  was  not  an  artist  in 
verse  as  Longfellow  was ;  and  he  was  often  as  careless  in 
rhyme  and  as  rugged  in  rhythm  as  was  Emerson.  Yet  to 
some  of  his  stanzas . 

6.  There  are  four  different  kinds  of  running :  sprinting, 
which  includes  all  distances  up  to  the  quarter  mile ;  middle-  * 
distance  running — from  the  quarter  to  the  mile;  and  long- 
distance running,  which  includes  the  mile  and  all  distances 
beyond.  Besides  these  there  is  cross-country  running. 
This  last  is  best  of  all  for  growing  boys.  The  first  three 
are  track  races,  and  it  is  monotonous  work  trotting  round 
and  round  a  cinder  path.     But . 

7.  I  have  sometimes  been  puzzled  in  Venice  to  know 
why  churches  should  keep  cats,  church-mice  being  proverbi- 
ally so  poor,  and  so  little  capable  of  sustaining  a  cat  in  good 
condition;  yet . 

8.  There  is  a  common   notion   that   animals  are  better 
meteorologists  than  men,  and  I  have  little  doubt  that  in 
immediate  weather-wisdom  they  have  the  advantage  of  our 
sophisticated  senses  (though  I  suspect  a  sailor  or  shepherd  ' 
would  be  their  match),  but . 

9.  Any  slave  of  the  mine  may  find  the  rough  gem ;  but 

.     If  Gray  cull  his  words  and  phrases  here,  there, 

and  everywhere,  it  is  he  who  charges  them  with  the  imagina- 
tion or  picturesque  touch  which  only  he  could  give  and 
wjiich  makes  them  magnetic. 

10.  The  universal  dead-level  of  plainness  and  homeliness, 
the  lack  of  all  beauty  and  distinction  in  form  and  feature, 
the  slowness  and  clumsiness  of  the  language,  the  eternal  beer, 
sausages,  and  bad  tobacco,  the  blank  commonness  every- 
where, pressing  at  last  like  a  weight  on  the  spirits  of  the 
traveller  in  Northern  Germany,  and  making  him  impatient 
to    be    gone,  —  this   is    the    weak    side; ,  — 


PARTICULARS  AND  DETAILS,  85 

this  is  the  strong  side ;  and  through  this  side  of  her  genius, 
Germany  has  already  obtained  excellent  results. 

C.  In  each  of  the  following  topic  statements  pick  oat  the  sig- 
nificant words  of  predication ;  then  develop  each  statement  into  a 
paragraph  by  presenting  contrasting  ideas  :  — 

1.  It  is  seldom  that  a  pupil  succeeds  equally  well  in  all 
his  studies. 

2.  Lincoln's  early  advantages  were  extremely  limited. 

3.  Novel  reading  seems  to  be  on  the  increase. 

4.  The  world  is  growing  more  humane. 

5.  The  good  will  triumph  over  w^rong. 

6.  Slavery  was  an  unmixed  evil. 

7.  The  war   against   Mexico  was  not   begun  with  un* 
selfish  motives. 

8.  There  have  been  temporary  evils  connected  with  the 
introduction  of  labor-saving  machinery. 

9.  Lynching  should  be  suppressed. 

10.  Jackson  and  Lincoln  present  points  of  similarity. 

11.  There  are  books  that  may  be  dismissed  with  a  single 
reading. 

By  Particulars  and  Details. 
24.  When  at  the  beginning  of  a  paragraph  we  find  a 
topic  stated  like  this,  "-  Every  traveller  going  south  from 
St.  Louis  can  recall  the  average  Arkansas  village  in 
winter,"  we  can  readily  guess  what  the  writer  will  say 
next.  We  know,  at  any  rate,  what  we  want  him  to  say- 
We  want  more  information  about  the  Arkansas  village. 
We  want  to  know  something  about  its  houses,  its  streets, 
its  surroundings,  its  inhabitants.  We  want  and  we  ex- 
pect the  particulars  of  the  scene  in  winter  which  will 
enable  us  to  see  it  as  the  writer  saw  it,  or  as  the  traveller 
is  supposed  to  recall  it.     One  way,  then,  in  which  an 


86  PARAGRAPHS. 

idea  may  grow  into  a  paragraph  is  by  the  addition  of  the 
particulars  and  details  -v^rhich  are  naturally  promised  by 
the  topic  statement.  The  following  will  illustrate  this 
method  of  growth :  — 

ITopic]  Every  traveller  going  south  from  St.  Louis  can 
recall  the  average  Arkansas  village  in  winter.  [^Particulars'] 
Little  strings  of  houses  spread  raggedly  on  both  sides  of  the 
rails.  A  few  wee  shops,  that  are  likely  to  have  a  mock  rec- 
tangle of  fagade  stuck  against  a  triangle  of  roof,  in  the  man- 
ner of  children's  card  houses,  parade  a  draggled  stock  of 
haberdashery  and  groceries.  To  right  or  left  a  mill  buzzes, 
its  newness  attested  by  the  raw  tints  of  the  weather  board- 
ing. There  is  no  horizon;  there  seldom  is  a  horizon  in 
Arkansas-^ it  is  cut  off  by  the  forest.  Pools  of  water  re- 
flect the  straight  black  lines  of  tree  trunks  and  the  crooked 
lines  of  bare  boughs,  while  a  muddy  road  winds  through  the 
vista.  Generally  there  are  a  few  lean  cattle  to  stare  in  a 
dejected  fashion  at  the  train,  and  some  fat  black  swine  to 
root  among  the  sodden  grasses.  Bales  of  cotton  are  piled 
on  the  railway  platform,  and  serve  as  seats  for  half  a  dozen 
listless  men  in  high  boots  and  soft  hats.  Occasionally  a 
woman,  who  has  not  had  the  time  to  brush  her  hair,  calls 
shrilly  to  some  child  who  is  trying  to  have  pneumonia  by 
sitting  on  the  ground.  No  one  seems  to  have  anything  to 
do,  yet  every  one  looks  tired,  and  the  passenger  in  the  Pull- 
man wonders  how  people  live  in  "  such  a  hole.'' 

—  Octave  Thanet. 

If  the  particulars  and  details  are  objects,  as  they  are 
in  the  quotation  just  given,  —  houses,  shops,  a  mill,  a 
forest,  pools,  cattle,  bales  of  cotton,  men,  women,  chil- 
dren, —  they  are  presented  in  the  order  in  which  they 
are  seen  b}^  the  writer,  that  is,  in  the  order  of  their 


PARTICULARS  AND  DETAILS.  87 

prominence  ;  if  they  are  events  —  such  as  would  be 
called  for  by  the  topic  statement,  "  I  shall  never  forget 
my  first  day  at  school,"  —  they  are  presented  in  the 
order  of  their  occurrence  in  time. 

25.  Assignments  on  Development  by  Particulars. 

A.  Point  out  in  the  following  paragraphs  the  particulars  and 
details,  first  finding  the  words  of  predication  in  the  topic  statement 
of  each. 

1.  There  are  few  places  more  favorable  to  the  study  of 
character  than  an  English  country  church.  I  was  once  pass- 
ing a  few  weeks  at  the  seat  of  a  friend,  who  resided  in  the 
vicinity  of  one,  the  appearance  of  which  particularly  struck 
my  fancy.  It  was  one  of  those  rich  morsels  of  quaint  an- 
tiquity which  give  such  a  peculiar  charm  to  English  land- 
scape. It  stood  in  the  midst  of  a  country  filled  with  ancient 
families,  and  contained,  within  its  cold  and  silent  aisles,  the 
congregated  dust  of  many  noble  generations.  The  interior 
walls  were  incrusted  with  monuments  of  every  age  and 
style.  The  light  streamed  through  windows  dimmed  with 
armorial  bearings,  richly  emblazoned  in  stained  glass.  In 
various  parts  of  the  church  were  tombs  of  knights,  and  high- 
born dames,  of  gorgeous  workmanship,  with  their  effigies  in 
colored  marble.  On  every  side  the  eye  was  struck  with  some 
instance  of  aspiring  mortality;  some  haughty  memorial, 
which  human  pride  had  erected  over  its  kindred  dust,  in  this 
temple  of  the  most  humble  of  all  religions. 

—  Irving  :  /Sketch  Book. 

2.  I  shall  never  forget  a  proof  I  myself  got,  twenty  years 
ago,  how  serious  a  thing  it  is  to  be  a  doctor,  and  how  terribly 
in  earnest  people  are  when  they  want  him.  It  was  when 
cholera  first  came  here  in  1832.  I  was  in  England  at 
Chatham,  which  you  all  know  is  a  great  place  for  ships  and 


88  PARAGhAPHS. 

sailors.  This  fell  disease  comes  on  generally  in  the  night ; 
as  the  Bible  says,  "  it  walks  in  darkness,"  and  many  a  morn- 
ing was  I  roused  at  two  o'clock  to  go  and  see  its  sudden 
victims,  for  then  is  its  hour  and  power.  One  morning  a 
sailor  came  to  say  I  must  go  three  miles  down  the  river  to  a 
village  where  it  had  broken  out  with  great  fury.  Off  I  set. 
We  rowed  in  silence  down  the  dark  river,  passing  the  huge 
hulks,  and  hearing  the  restless  convicts  turning  in  their  beds 
in  their  chains.  The  men  rowed  with  all  their  might ;  they 
had  too  many  dying  or  dead  at  home  to  have  the  heart  to 
speak  to  me.  We  got  near  the  place ;  it  was  very  dark,  but 
I  saw  a  crowd  of  men  and  women  on  the  shore,  at  the  land- 
ing-place. They  were  all  shouting  for  the  Doctor ;  the  shrill 
cries  of  the  women  and  the  deep  voices  of  the  men  coming 
across  the  water  to  me.  We  were  near  the  shore,  when  I 
saw  a  big  old  man,  his  hat  off,  his  hair  gray,  his  head  bald ; 
he  said  nothing,  but  turning  them  all  off  with  his  arm,  he 
plunged  into  the  sea,  and  before  I  knew  where  I  was,  he  had 
me  in  his  arms.  I  was  helpless  as  an  infant.  He  waded 
out  with  me,  carrying  me  high  up  in  his  left  arm,  and  with 
his  right  levelling  every  man  or  woman  who  stood  in  his  way. 
It  was  Big  Joe  carrying  me  to  see  his  grandson,  little  Joe ; 
and  he  bore  me  off  to  the  poor  convulsed  boy,  and  dared  me 
to  leave  him  till  he  was  better.  He  did  get  better,  but  Big 
Joe  was  dead  that  night.  He  had  the  disease  on  him  when 
he  carried  me  away  from  the  boat,  but  his  heart  was  set 
upon  his  boy.  I  never  can  forget  that  night,  and  how  im- 
portant a  thing  it  was  to  be  able  to  relieve  suffering,  and 
how  much  Old  Joe  was  in  earnest  about  having  the  doctor. 
—  John  Browx:  Horoe  Subsecivcej  I,  393. 

3.  The  great  globe  we  had  left  was  rolling  beneath  us. 
No  eye  of  one  in  the  flesh  could  see  it  as  I  saw  or  seemed 
to  see  it.     No  ear  of  any  mortal  being  could  hear  the  sounds 


PARTICULARS  AND  DETAILS.  89 

that  came  from  it  as  I  heard  or  seemed  to  hear  them.  The 
broad  oceans  unrolled  themselves  before  me.  I  could  rec- 
ognize the  calm  Pacific  and  the  stormy  Atlantic,  —  the 
ships  that  dotted  them,  the  white  lines  where  the  waves 
broke  on  the  shore,  —  frills  on  the  robes  of  the  continent,  — 
so  they  looked  to  my  woman's  perception ;  the  vast  South 
American  forests;  the  glittering  icebergs  about  the  poles; 
the  snowy  mountain  ranges,  here  and  there  a  summit  send- 
ing up  fire  and  smoke;  mighty  rivers,  dividing  provinces 
within  sight  of  each  other,  and  making  neighbors  of  realms 
thousands  of  miles  apart ;  cities ;  lighthouses  to  insure  the 
safety  of  sea-going  vessels,  and  war-ships  to  knock  them  to 
pieces  and  sink  them.  All  this,  and  infinitely  more,  showed 
itself  to  me  during  a  single  revolution  of  the  sphere  :  twenty- 
four  hours  it  would  have  been,  if  reckoned  by  earthly  meas- 
urements of  time.  I  have  not  spoken  of  the  sounds  I  heard 
while  the  earth  was  revolving  under  us.  The  howl  of  storms, 
the  roar  and  clash  of  waves,  the  crack  and  crash  of  the 
falling  thunderbolt,  —  these  of  course  made  themselves 
heard  as  they  do  to  mortal  ears.  But  there  were  other 
sounds  which  enchained  my  attention  more  than  these  voices 
of  nature.  As  the  skilled  leader  of  an  orchestra  hears  every 
single  sound  from  each  member  of  the  mob  of  stringed  and 
wind  instruments,  and  above  all  the  screech  of  the  straining 
soprano,  so  my  sharpened  perceptions  made  what  would  have 
been  for  common  mortals  a  confused  murmur  audible  to  me 
as  compounded  of  innumerable  easily  distinguished  sounds. 
Above  them  all  arose  one  continued,  unbroken,  agonizing 
cry.  It  was  the  voice  of  suffering  womanhood,  —  a  sound 
that  goes  up  day  and  night,  one  long  chorus  of  tortured 
victims.  —  O.  W.  Holmes  :  Over  the  Teacups, 

4.   That  was  a  pretty  drive  through  Annandale.     As  you 
leave  Moffat  the  road  gradually  ascends  into  the  region  of 


90  PARAGRAPHS. 

the  hills ;  and  down  below  you  lies  the  great  valley,  with 
the  river  Annan  running  through  it,  and  the  town  of  Moffat 
itself  getting  smaller  in  the  distance.  You  catch  a  glimmer 
of  the  blue  peaks  of  Westmoreland  lying  far  away  in  the 
blue  south,  half  hid  amidst  silver  haze.  The  hills  around 
you  increase  in  size,  and  yet  you  would  not  recognize  the 
bulk  of  the  great  round  slopes  but  for  those  minute  dots 
that  you  can  make  out  to  be  sheep,  and  for  an  occasional 
wasplike  creature  that  you  can  suppose  to  be  a  horse. 

The  evening  draws  on.  The  yellow  light  on  the  slopes 
becomes  warmer.  You  arrive  at  a  great  circular  chasm 
which  is  called  by  the  country  folks  the  Devil's  Beef-tub  — 
a  mighty  hollow,  the  western  sides  of  which  are  steeped  in 
a  soft  purple  shadow,  while  the  eastern  slopes  burn  yellow 
in  the  sunlight.  Far  away,  down  in  that  misty  purple,  you 
can  see  tents  of  gray,  and  these  are  masses  of  slate  un- 
covered by  grass. ,  The  descent  seems  too  abrupt  for  cattle, 
and  yet  there  are  faint  specks  which  may  be  sheep.  There 
is  no  house,  not  even  a  farm-house,  near ;  and  all  traces  of 
Moffat  and  its  neighborhood  have  long  been  left  out  of  sight. 

But  what  is  the  solitude  of  this  place  to  that  of  the  wild 
and  lofty  region  you  enter  when  you  reach  the  summit  of 
the  hill?  Far  away  on  every  side  of  you  stretch  miles  of 
lonely  moorland,  with  the  shoulders  of  the  more  distant 
hills  reaching  down  in  endless  succession  into  the  western 
sky.  There  is  no  sign  of  life  in  this  wild  place.  The  stony 
road  over  which  you  drive  was  once  a  mail-coach  road ;  now 
it  is  overgrown  with  grass.  A  few  old  stakes,  rotten  and 
tumbling,  show  where  it  was  necessary  at  one  time  to  place 
a  protection  against  the  sudden  descents  on  the  side  of  the 
road ;  but  now  the  road  itself  seehis  lapsing  back  into  moor- 
land. It  is  up  in  this  wilderness  of  heather  and  wet  moss 
that  the  Tweed  takes  its  rise;  but  we  could  hear  no  trick- 
ling of  any  stream  to  break  the  profound  and  melancholy 


PARTICULARS  AND  DETAILS.  91 

silence.  There  was  not  even  a  shepherd's  hut  visible  ;  and 
we  drove  on  in  silence,  scarcely  daring  to  break  the  charm 
of  the  utter  loneliness  of  the  place. 

The  road  twists  round  to  the  right.  Before  us  a  long 
valley  is  seen,  and  we  guess  that  it  receives  the  waters  of 
the  Tweed.  Almost  immediately  afterward  we  come  upon 
a  tiny  rivulet  some  two  feet  in  width  —  either  the  young 
Tweed  itself  or  one  of  its  various  sources ;  and  as  we  drive 
on  in  the  gathering  twilight,  towards  the  valley,  it  seems  as 
though  we  were  accompanied  by  innumerable  streamlets 
trickling  down  to  the  river.  The  fire  of  sunset  goes  out  in 
the  west,  but  over  there  in  the  clear  green-white  of  the  east 
a  range  of  hills  still  glows  with  a  strange  roseate  purple. 
We  hear  the  low  murmuring  of  the  Tweed  in  the  silence  of 
the  valley.  We  get  down  among  the  lower-lying  hills,  and 
the  neighborhood  of  the  river  seems  to  have  drawn  to  it 
thousands  of  wild  creatures.  There  are  plover  calling  and 
whirling  over  the  marshy  levels.  There  are  black-cock  and 
gray-hen  dusting  themselves  in  the  road  before  us,  and 
waiting  until  we  are  quite  near  them  before  they  wing  their 
straight  flight  up  to  the  heaths  above.  Far  over  us  in  the 
clear  green  of  the  sky,  a  brace  of  wild-ducks  go  swiftly  past. 
A  weasel  glides  out  and  over  the  gray  stones  by  the  road- 
side; and  farther  along  the  bank  there  are  young  rabbits 
watching,  and  trotting,  and  watching  again,  as  the  phaeton 
gets  nearer  to  them.  And  then  as  the  deep  rose-purple  of 
the  eastern  hills  fades  away,  and  all  the  dark-green  valley 
of  the  Tweed  lies  under  the  cold  silver-gray  of  the  twilight, 
we  reach  a  small  and  solitary  inn,  and  are  almost  surprised 
to  hear  once  more  the  sound  of  a  human  voice. 

—  Black  :  Adventures  of  a  Phaeton. 

5.  The  old  South  rested  everything  on  slavery  and  agri- 
culture, unconscious  that  these  could  neither  give  nor  main- 


92  PARAGRAPHS, 

tain  healthy  growth.  The  new  South  presents  a  perfect 
democracy,  the  oligarchs  leading  in  the  popular  movement 
—  a  social  system  compact  and  closely  knitted,  less  splendid 
on  the  surface,  but  stronger  at  the  core  —  a  hundred  farms 
for  every  plantation,  fifty  homes  for  every  palace,  and  a 
diversified  industry  that  meets  the  complex  needs  of  this 
complex  age.  The  new  South  is  enamoured  of  her  new 
work.  Her  soul  is  stirred  with  the  breath  of  a  new  life. 
The  light  of  a  grander  day  is  falling  fair  on  her  face.  She 
is  thrilling  with  the  consciousness  of  growing  power  and 
prosperity.  As  she  stands  upright,  full-statured  and  equal 
among  the  people  of  the  earth,  breathing  the  keen  air,  and 
looking  out  upon  the  expanding  horizon,  she  understands 
that  her  emancipation  came  because  in  the  inscrutable 
wisdom  of  God  her  honest  purpose  was  crossed  and  her 
brave  armies  were  beaten. — Henry  W.  Grady:  Speeches, 

B.  The  following  topic  statements  are  to  be  developed  by  giving 
particulars.  Determine  in  each  case,  by  noting  the  words  of  predi- 
cation, whether  the  particulars  called  for  are  side  by  side  in  space, 
or  succeed  one  another  in  time.  The  employment  of  such  phrases 
as  "to  go  into  particulars,"  "to  mention  details,"  will  sometimes 
be  found  useful  in  starting  the  train  of  thought. 

1.  The  village  presented  a  lively  appearance  the  morn- 
ing of  the  election. 

2.  I  shall  never  forget  my  first  day  at  school. 

3.  The  court-room  was  a  dingy  place. 

4.  The  last  game  of  ball  was  the  best  of  the  season. 

5.  I  once  saw,  or  thought  I  saw,  a  ghost! 

6.  Have  you  ever  watched  the  effects  of  moonlight  upon 
clouds  ? 

7.  A  new  boy  h9,s  come  into  our  school. 

8.  What  a  beautiful  character  Longfellow  has  created  for 
us  in  Evangeline ! 


SPECIFIC  INSTANCES.  93 

9.   The   morning   paper  brings  the  news  of   a  terrible 
accident. 

10.  Washington's  journey  to  his  first  inauguration  was  a 
triumph. 

11.  There  is  an  old  deserted  mill  a  few  miles  up  the  river. 

12.  The  portrait  of  Daniel  Webster  shows  that  he  was  a 
man  of  great  firmness  and  determination. 

By  Specific  Instances. 
26.  When  the  topic  is  stated  as  a  general  truth  or 
principle,  as  "  Having  some  favorite  physical  amuse- 
ment adds  to  the  popularity  of  distinguished  English- 
men," we  feel  that  it  should  be  developed  by  citing  one 
or  more  cases  in  point,  —  illustrations,  specific  instances, 
or  concrete  examples,  as  they  are  sometimes  called. 
The  reader  may  be  ready  enough  to  believe  the  topic 
statement  as  it  stands;  but  even  then  he  likes  to  be 
given  at  least  one  specific  instance  by  way  of  example 
or  illustration.  If  the  reader  is  inclined  to  doubt,  he 
demands  the  specific  instance  by  way  of  proof,  and  he 
may  require  several  instances  before  he  will  accept  the 
topic  statement  as  true.     Notice  the  following:  — 

\^Topic]  Many  distinguished  Englishmen  have  had  some 
favorite  physical  amusement  that  we  associate  with  their 
names.  It  is  almost  a  part  of  an  Englishman's  nature  to 
select  a  physical  pursuit  and  make  it  especially  his  own. 
His  countrymen  like  him  the  better  for  having  a  taste  of 
this  kind.  \_Spexific  instances]  Mr.  Gladstone's  practised 
skill  in  tree-felling  is  a  help  to  his  popularity.  The  readers 
of  Wordsworth,  Scott,  and  Byron  all  remember  that  the  first 
was  a  pedestrian,  the  second  a  keen  sportsman,  and  the  third 
the  best  swimmer  of  his  time.     The  readers  of  Keats  are 


94  PARAGRAPHS. 

sorry  for  the  ill  health  that  spoiled  the  latter  years  of  his 
short  life,  but  they  remember  with  satisfaction  that  the 
ethereal  poet  was  once  muscular  enough  to  administer  "a 
severe  drubbing  to  a  butcher  whom  he  caught  beating  a  little 
boy,  to  the  enthusiastic  admiration  of  a  crowd  of  bystand- 
ers." Shelley's  name  is  associated  forever  with  his  love  of 
boating,  and  its  disastrous  ending.  In  our  own  day,  when 
we  learn  something  about  the  private  life  of  our  celebrated 
contemporaries,  we  have  a  satisfaction  in  knowing  that  they 
enjoyed  some  physical  recreation,  as,  for  example,  that  Tyn- 
dall  is  a  mountaineer,  Millais  a  grouse-shooter,  John  Bright 
a  salmon-fisher ;  and  it  is  characteristic  of  the  inveteracy  of 
English  physical  habits  that  Mr.  Fawcett  should  have  gone 
on  riding  and  skating  after  he  was  blind,  and  that  Anthony 
Trollope  was  still  passionately  fond  of  fox-hunting  when  he 
was  old  and  heavy  and  could  hardly  see.  The  English  have 
such  a  respect  for  physical  energy  that  they  still  remember 
with  pleasure  how  Palmerston  hunted  in  his  old  age,  and 
how,  almost  to  the  last,  he  would  go  down  to  Epsom  on 
horseback.  There  was  a  little  difficulty  about  getting  him 
into  the  saddle,  but,  once  there,  he  was  safe  till  the  end  of 
his  journey.  —  Hamerton:  French  and  English. 

If  a  writer  should  begin  a  paragraph  with  the  topic 
statement,  "The  Greeks  did  not  understand  athletics 
at  all  so  well  as  the  English  do,"  many  readers  would 
question  the  truth  of  the  statement.  They  would  say 
that  the  Greeks  both  understood  athletics  and  practised 
athletics  better  than  any  other  people  in  the  history 
of  the  world,  and  they  would  want  to  know^  on  what 
ground  so  preposterous  a  notion  was  advanced.  It 
would  then  be  the  business  of  the  writer,  if  he  wanted 
his    readers   to  agree  with  him,  to  bring  forward  the 


SPECIFIC  INSTANCES.  95 

grounds  or  proofs  of  his  assertion.  By  pointing  out 
defects  in  the  Greek  system  of  training  or  manner  of 
conducting  athletic  contests,  or,  perhaps,  by  quoting 
from  the  opinions  of  the  Greeks  themselves,  he  would 
endeavor  to  make  his  opening  sentence  seem  probable 
or  true.  Such  is  the  method  employed  in  the  following 
paragraph :  — 

Though  extraordinary  feats  were  sometimes  recorded,  I 
believe  that  the  Greeks  did  not  understand  athletics  at  all 
so  well  as  the  English  do.  Two  facts  may  be  mentioned 
in  proof  of  this.  The  runners  are  said  to  have  started 
shouting.  The  boxers,  who  had  their  fists  weighted  with 
loaded  leather  gloves,  swung  round  at  one  another's  ears, 
instead  of  striking  straight  home.  What  we  hear  about 
their  training  seems  equally  stupid ;  their  trained  men  are 
described  as  generally  sleepy,  they  fed  on  enormous  quan- 
tities of  meat,  and  and  were  obliged  to  swear  that  they  had 
spent  ten  months  in  training  before  the  games.  Good 
generals,  such  as  Alexander  and  Philopoemen,  discounte- 
nanced athletics  as  producing  bad  soldiers.  But,  neverthe- 
less, the  combination  of  art  contests  with  athletics  made 
the  Greek  meetings  finer  and  more  imposing  than  ours. 
—  J.  P.  Mahaffy  :   Old  Greek  Life. 

27.  Assignments  on  Development  by  Specific  In- 
stances. 

A.  Point  out  the  specific  instances  by  means  of  which  the 
topic  is  developed  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

1.  The  sounds  which  the  ocean  makes  must  be  very  sig- 
nificant and  interesting  to  those  who  live  near  it.  When  I 
was  leaving  the  shore  at  this  place  the  next  summer,  and 
had  got  a  quarter  of  a  mile  distant,  ascending  a  hill,  I  was 


96  PARAGRAPHS. 

startled  by  a  sudden,  loud  sound  from  the  sea,  as  if  a  large 
steamer  was  letting  off  steam  by  the  shore,  so  that  I  caught 
my  breath  and  felt  my  blood  run  cold  for  an  instant,  and  I 
turned  about,  expecting  to  see  one  of  the  Atlantic  steamers 
thus  far  out  of  her  course ;  but  there  was  nothing  unusual 
to  be  seen.  There  was  a  low  bank  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Hollow,  between  me  and  the  ocean,  and  suspecting  that  I 
might  have  risen  into  another  stratum  of  air  in  ascending 
the  hill,  —  which  had  wafted  to  me  only  the  ordinary  roar 
of  the  sea,  —  I  immediately  descended  again,  to  see  if  I  lost 
hearing  of  it ;  but,  without  regard  to  my  ascending  or  de- 
scending, it  died  away  in  a  minute  or  two,  and  yet  there 
was  scarcely  any  wind  all  the  while.  The  old  man  said 
that  this  was  what  they  called  the  "  rut,"  a  peculiar  roar  of 
the  sea  before  the  wind  changes,  which,  however,  he  could 
not  account  for.  He  thought  that  he  could  tell  all  about  the 
weather  from  the  sounds  which  the  sea  made. 

—  Thoreau  :  Cape  Cod. 

2.  There  has  been  a  capital  illustration  lately  how  help- 
less many  English  gentlemen  are  when  called  'together  on 
a  sudden.  The  Government,  rightly  or  wrongly,  thought  fit 
to  intrust  the  quarter-sessions  of  each  county  with  the  duty 
of  combating  its  cattle  plague ;  but  the  scene  in  most  "  shire 
halls  "  was  unsatisfactory.  There  was  the  greatest  difficulty 
in  getting,  not  only  a  right  decision,  but  any  decision.  I 
saw  one  myself  which  went  thus.  The  chairman  proposed 
a  very  complex  resolution,  in  which  there  was  much  which 
every  one  liked,  and  much  which  every  one  disliked,  though, 
of  course,  the  favorite  parts  of  some  were  the  objectionable 
parts  to  others.  This  resolution  got,  so  to  say,  wedged  in  the 
meeting;  everybody  suggested  amendments;  one  amend- 
ment was  carried  which  none  were  satisfied  with,  and  so 
the  matter  stood  over.     It  is  a  saying  in  England,  "  a  big 


SPECIFIC  INSTANCES.  97 

meeting  never  does  anything  "  ;  and  yet  we  are  governed  by 
the  House  of  Commons,  —  by  "  a  big  meeting." 

—  Bagehot  :   TJie  English  Constitution,  207. 

3.  All  history  is  full  of  revolutions,  produced  by  causes 
similar  to  those  which  are  now  [March  2,  1831]  operating 
in  England.  A  portion  of  the  community  which  had  been 
of  no  account,  expands  and  becomes  strong.  It  demands  a 
place  in  the  system,  suited,  not  to  its  former  weakness,  but 
to  its  present  power.  If  this  is  granted,  all  is  well.  If  this 
is  refused,  then  comes  the  struggle  between  the  young 
energy  of  one  class  and  the  ancient  privileges  of  another. 
Such  was  the  struggle  between  the  Plebeians  and  the  Patri- 
cians of  Eome.  Such  was  the  struggle  of  the  Italian  allies 
for  admission  to  the  full  rights  of  Koman  citizens.  Such 
was  the  struggle  of  our  North  American  colonies  against 
the  mother  country.  Such  was  the  struggle  which  the 
Third  Estate  of  France  maintained  against  the  aristocracy 
of  birth.  Such  was  the  struggle  which  the  Eoman  Catholics 
of  Ireland  maintained  against  the  aristocracy  of  creed. 
Such  is  the  struggle  which  the  free  people  of  color  in 
Jamaica  are  now  maintaining  against  the  aristocracy  of  skin. 
Such,  finally,  is  the  struggle  which  the  middle  classes  in 
England  are  maintaining  against  an  aristocracy  of  mere 
locality,  against  an  aristocracy,  the  principle  of  which  is  to 
invest  a  hundred  drunken  potwallopers  in  one  place,  or  the 
owner  of  a  ruined  hovel  in  another,  with  powers  which  are 
withheld  from  cities  renowned  to  the  furthest  ends  of  the 
earth  for  the  marvels  of  their  wealth  and  of  their  industry. 

—  Mac AUL AY :  Speech  on  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832. 

4.  The  circle  of  human  nature  is  not  complete  without 
the  arc  of  feeling  and  emotion.  The  lilies  of  the  field  have 
a  value  for  us  beyond  their  botanical  ones,  —  a  certain  light- 
ening of  the  heart  accompanies  the  declaration  that  "  Solo- 


98  PARAGRAPHS. 

mon  in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these." 
The  sound  of  the  village  bell  which  comes  mellowed  from 
the  valley  to  the  traveller  upon  the  hill  has  a  value  beyond 
its  acoustical  one.  The  setting  sun  when  it  mantles  with 
the  bloom  of  roses  the  alpine  snows  has  a  value  beyond  its 
optical  one.  The  starry  heavens,  as  you  know,  had  for  Im- 
manuel  Kant  a  value  beyond  their  astronomical  one.  Round 
about  the  intellect  sweeps  the  horizon  of  emotions  from 
which  all  our  noblest  impulses  are  derived.  I  think  it 
very  desirable  to  keep  this  horizon  open  ;  not  to  permit  either 
priest  or  philosopher  to  draw  down  his  shutters  between  you 
and  it.  And  here  the  dead  languages,  which  are  sure  to  be 
beaten  by  science  in  the  purely  intellectual  fight,  have  an 
irresistible  claim.  They  supplement  the  work  of  science  by 
exalting  and  refining  the  aesthetic  faculty,  and  must  on  this 
account  be  cherished  by  all  who  desire  to  see  human  culture 
complete.  There  must  be  a  reason  for  the  fascination  which 
these  languages  have  so  long  exercised  upon  the  most  power- 
ful and  elevated  minds,  —  a  fascination  which  will  probably 
continue  for  men  of  Greek  and  Roman  mold  to  the  end  of 
time.  —  Tynd ALL :  Addresses. 

B.  The  following  topic  statements  are  to  be  developed  by  specific 
instances  or  examples.  The  expressions  "to  mention  a  case  in 
point,"  "  for  instance,"  "  a  remarkable  example  of  this,"  will  often 
make  clear  just  what  is  wanted. 

1.  One  is  frequently  surprised  by  the  intelligence  which 
the  lower  animals  show. 

2.  Even  very  great  and  very  good  men  usually  have 
some  failing. 

3.  It  is  often  the  minor  characters  in  Dickens's  novels 
that  are  remembered  longest. 

4.  A  bad  beginning  does  not  necessarily  imply  a  bad 
ending. 


CAUSE  AND  EFFECT.  j  99^ 

5.  Men  of  great  wealth  are  not  all  selfish. 

6.  The  demands  of  labor  organizations  are  frequently- 
received  in  the  wrong  spirit. 

7.  People  are  too  apt  to  decide  that  a  person  accused  of 
crime  is  guilty  before  his  case  is  tried. 

8.  Sometimes  the  best  statesmen  do  not  know  what  law 
is  needed. 

9.  Some  queer  expressions  are  used  by  foreigners  learn- 
ing our  language. ' 

10.  The  abolitionist  agitators  were  frequently  placed  in 
perilous  positions. 

By  Cause  and  Effect. 

28.  In  his  chapter  in  the  American  Commonwealth, 
on  "  The  Position  of  Women,"  Mr.  Bryce  points  out 
that  in  America  women  are  much  more  nearly  on  an 
equality  with  men  than  they  are  in  Europe.  He  then 
asks,  ''  What  have  been  the  results  on  the  character  and 
usefulness  of  women  themselves  ?  "  and  answers :  — 

"  They  have  opened  to  them  a  wider  life  and  more  variety 
of  career.  While  the  special  graces  of  the  feminine  character 
do  not  appear  to  have  suffered,  there  has  been  produced  a 
sort  of  independence  and  a  capacity  for  self-help  which  are 
increasingly  valuable  as  the  number  of  unmarried  women 
increases.  More  resources  are  opened  to  an  American  woman 
who  has  to  lead  a  solitary  life,  not  merely  in  the  way  of  em- 
ployment but  for  the  occupation  of  her  mind  and  tastes, 
than  to  a  European  spinster  or  widow ;  while  her  education 
has  not  rendered  the  American  wife  less  competent  for  the 
discharge  of  household  duties." 

This  method  of  developing  an  idea  is  often  followed  in 
the  paragraph.     The  topic  statement  having  announced 


100  PARAGRAPHS. 

something  that  may  be  regarded  as  a  cause,  the  remain- 
ing sentences  state  the  cjffects,  consequences,  or  conclu- 
sions. This  method  of  growth  is  illustrated  in  the 
following  :  — 

When  the  Romans  conquered  Greece  and  the  East,  \_Caiise'] 
they  saw  a  great  many  things  which  they  had  never  seen 
before ;  and  \^Effect^  they  began  to  care  more  about  eating 
and  drinking,  and  building  fine  houses.  [Oawse]  The  Greeks 
were  much  cleverer  than  the  Romans,  or  indeed  than  any 
people  of  the  time,  for  all  the  best  books  and  statues  and 
pictures  of  th^  old  world  had  been  made  by  the  Greek  writers 
and  artists.  \^Effect^  So  the  Romans  not  only  learned  many 
new  things  from  the  Greeks,  but  gave  up  a  great  many  of  their 
own  early  beliefs.  They  thought  less  of  their  own  Roman 
gods,  and  altogether  they  were  not  so  simple  or  so  good  as 
they  had  been  before. 

—  M.  Creighton:  History  of  Borne  (History  Primers), 

The  statement  of  the  effect  is  commonly  preceded  by 
some  linking  word  or  phrase  such  as,  So,  so  that,  there- 
fore, consequently,  accordingly,  the  result  is,  it  follows,  the 
effect  is,  and  the  like. 

29.  Assignments  on  Development  by  Cause  and  Effect. 

A.  In  the  following  paragraphs,  point  out  ideas  which  are  related 
to  one  another  as  cause  to  effect :  — 

1.  The  friction  in  the  minute  arteries  and  capillaries 
presents  a  considerable  resistance  to  the  flow  of  blood  through 
them  into  the  small  veins.  In  consequence  of  this  resist- 
ance, the  force  of  the  heart's  beat  is  spent  in  maintaining 
the  whole  of  the  arterial  system  in  a  state  of  great  disten- 
tion; the  arterial  walls  are  put  greatly  on  the  stretch  by  the 


CAUSE  AND   EFFECT.  101 

pressure  of  the  blood  thrust  into  them  by  the  repeated 
strokes  of  the  heart ;  this  is  the  pressure  which  we  spoke  of 
above  as  blood-pressure.  —  Foster  :  Physiology,  chap.  iv. 

2.  There  was  a  salt  marsh  that  bounded  part  of  the  mill- 
pond,  on  the  edge  of  which,  at  high-water,  we  used  to  stand 
to  fish  for  minnows.  By  much  trampling,  we  had  made  it 
a  mere  quagmire.  My  proposal  was  to  build  a  wharf  there 
fit  for  us  to  stand  upon,  and  I  showed  my  comrades  a  large 
heap  of  stones  which  were  intended  for  a  new  house  near 
the  marsh,  and  which  would  very  well  suit  our  purpose. 
Accordingly,  in  the  evening,  when  the  workmen  were  gone, 
I  assembled  a  number  of  my  playfellows,  and  working  with 
them  diligently,  like  so  many  emmets,  sometimes  two  or 
three  to  a  stone,  we  brought  them  all  away  and  built  our 
little  wharf.  The  next  morning  the  workmen  were  surprised 
at  missing  the  stones,  which  were  found  in  our  wharf.  In- 
quiry was  made  after  the  removers  ;  we  were  discovered,  and 
complained  of ;  several  of  us  were  corrected  by  our  fathers ; 
and  though  I  pleaded  the  usefulness  of  the  work,  mine  con- 
vinced me  that  nothing  was  useful  which  was  not  honest. 

—  Fkanklin  :  Autobiography. 

3.  At  court,  and  in  the  castles  of  the  great  nobles,  where 
the  pomp  and  state  of  a  court  were  emulated,  Norman-French 
was  the  only  language  employed ;  in  courts  of  law  the  plead- 
ings and  judgments  were  delivered  in  the  same  tongue.  In 
short,  French  was  the  language  of  honor,  of  chivalry,  and 
even  of  justice;  while  the  far  more  manly  and  expressive 
Anglo-Saxon  was  abandoned  to  the  use  of  rustics  and  hinds, 
who  knew  no  other.  Still,  however,  the  necessary  intercourse 
between  the  lords  of  the  soil  and  those  oppressed  inferior 
beings  by  whom  that  soil  was  cultivated  occasioned  the  grad- 
ual formation  of  a  dialect  compounded  betwixt  the  French 
and  the   Anglo-Saxon,  in  which  they   could  render  them- 


102  PABAGRAPHS. 

selves  mutually  intelligible  to  each  other;  and  from  this 
necessity  arose  by  degrees  the  structure  of  our  present  Eng- 
lish language,  in  which  the  speech  of  the  victors  and  the 
vanquished  have  been  so  happily  blended  together,  and 
which  has  since  been  so  richly  improved  by  importations 
from  the  classical  languages,  and  from  those  spoken  by  the 
southern  nations  of  Europe.  —  Scott  :  Ivanlioe,  chap.  i. 

4.  The  insular  form  of  Great  Britain  gave  it  a  certain 
advantage  over  the  continent  during  the  age  when  the  north- 
ern tribes  were  plundering  Kome  and  devastating  the  coun- 
tries of  southern  Europe.  As  their  invasions  of  England 
could  only  be  by  sea,  they  were  necessarily  on  a  compara- 
tively small  scale.  They  could  not  at  once  overrun  the 
whole  land,  as  they  did  in  France,  and  hence  the  strife  was 
long  maintained  by  hope  of  successful  resistance  ;  and  thus 
courage  and  the  virtues  that  depend  on  courage  were  kept 
alive  and  transmitted. 

—  Montgomery  :  The  Leading  Facts  of  English  History,  7. 

5.  A  warm  and  moist  wind,  the  southwest  of  the  Atlantic, 
for  example,  setting  from  the  tropics,  comes  in  contact  with 
the  colder  air  of  the  temperate  regions ;  its  temperature  is 
lowered;  it  can  no  longer  contain  as  great  a  quantity  of 
vapor,  A  portion  of  its  humidity  is  immediately  condensed 
into  clouds,  then  falls  in  rain. 

Or  the  opposite ;  a  wind  charged  with  clouds  arrives  in  a 
warmer  and  drier  air ;  comes,  for  example,  from  the  Medi- 
terranean to  the  Sahara,  as  is  the  case  during  three-fourths 
of  the  year ;  the  burning  air  of  the  desert,  having  a  much 
greater  capacity  for  vapor,  dissipates  instantly  all  these 
clouds,  that  break  up,  vanish,  and  disappoint  the  excited 
expectgition  of  the  traveller,  who  hoped  for  refreshing  rains. 

—  Guyot  :  Earth  and  Man,  152. 


CAUSE    AND    EFFECT.  103 

B.  These  paragraphs  as  originally  written  contained  a  state- 
ment of  a  cause  followed  by  a  statement  of  a  result  of  that  cause. 
Supply  the  omitted  portion. 

1.  Some  tribes,  especially  those  that  lived  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  great  lakes,  made  certain  tools  and  imple- 
ments of  copper,  which  metal,  it  is  said,  they  had  some 
means  of  hardening,  so  that  it  would  cut  wood  tolerably 
well.     But  they  had  no  iron.     Accordingly . 

2.  The  coming  of  the  Europeans  to  this  country  brought 
new  races  not  only  of  men,  but  also  of  plants  and  animals, 
into  contact  and  connection  with  those  previously  existing 
here.     The  result  was . 

3.  Every  American  boy  should  learn  to  run.  The  English 
boy  is  encouraged  to  run.  In  fact,  at  some  of  the  great 
English  public  schools,  boys  of  thirteen  and  fourteen  years 
of  age,  like  Tom  Brown  and  East  at  Eugby,  can  cover  six 
and  eight  miles  cross-country  in  the  great  hare-and-hounds 
runs.  Every  boy  is  turned  out  twice  a  week,  out  of  doors, 
and  made  to  run,  and  fill  himself  full  of  pure  fresh  air  and 
sunshine,  and  gain  more  strength  and  life  than  any  amount 
of  weight-pulling  or  dumb-bell  work  in  stuffy  gymnasiums 
would  give  him.     See  the  result . 

4.  By  the  Articles  of  Confederation  the  General  Govern- 
ment had  no  power  to  levy  taxes,  and  yet  it  had  power  to 
incur  debts.     The  result  was . 

5.  The  relation  of  trades  unions  to  civilization  is  much 
misunderstood,  and  this  misunderstanding  has  resulted 
in . 

6.  Organized  labor  has  for  some  time  been  limiting  the 
number  of  apprentices  that  may  be  admitted  at  any  one 
time  to  a  shop  or  a  factory  in  order  to  learn  a  trade.  In 
some  lines  of  work  one  boy  to  four  journeymen  is  the  rule ; 


104  PARAGRAPHS. 

in  others,  where  the  union  influence  is  strong,  not  more  than 
one  boy  for  every  eight,  or  ten,  or  a  dozen,  mechanics  is 
permitted.     The  consequence  is . 

7.  That  the  laws  and  regulations  of  the  Spartan  consti- 
tution were  admirably  adapted  to  the  end  in  view,  —  the 
rearing  of  a  nation  of  skilful  and  resolute  warriors,  —  the 
long  military  supremacy  of  Sparta  among  the  states  of 
Greece  abundantly  attests.  But  when  we  consider  the  aim 
and  object  of  the  Spartan  institutions,  we  must  pronounce 
them  low  and  unworthy.  The  true  order  of  things  was  just 
reversed  among  the  Lacedaemonians.  Government  exists  for 
the  individual :  at  Sparta  the  individual  lived  for  the  state. 
The  body  is  intended  to  be  the  instrument  of  the  mind :  the 
Spartans  reversed  this,  and  attended  to  the  education  of  the 
mind  only  so  far  as  its  development  enhanced  the  effective- 
ness of  the  body  as  a  weapon  in  warfare.     IResults'] . 

Sparta,  in  significant  contrast  to  Athens,  bequeathed  nothing 
to  posterity. 

8.  During  the  last  fifty  years  the  continents  have  been 
covered  with  a  perfect  network  of  railroads,  constructed  at 
an  enormous  cost  of  labor  and  capital.  The  aggregate 
length  of  the  world's  steam  railways  in  1883  was  about 
275,000  miles,  suflB.cient,  to  use  MulhalPs  illustration,  to 
girdle  the  earth  eleven  times  at  the  equator,  or  more  than 
sufficient  to  reach  from  the  earth  to  the  moon.  The  con- 
tinental lines  of  railways  are  made  virtually  continuous 
round  the  world  by  connecting  lines  of  ocean  steamers. 
Telegraph  wires  traverse  the  continents  in  all  directions, 
and  cables  run  beneath  all  the  oceans  of  the  globe.  By 
these  inventions . 

9.  Jefferson's  interest  in  public  affairs  had  become  a  part 
of  his  nature,  and  could  not  suddenly  cease.  Accordingly 
in  his  retirement . 


^• 


CAUSE  AND  EFFECT,  105 

10.  The  people  saw,  in  Washington,  the  hero  of  the  war 
for  independence,  the  austere  champion  of  their  liberties, 
the  devoted  leader  of  ill-fed,  ill-clad  armies  fighting  against 
fearful  odds.  They  knew  that  his  life  had  been  pure,  that 
under  an  exterior  seemingly  cold  there  beat  a  warm  and  hos- 
pitable heart.     What  wonder  then  that . 

C.  Develop  each  of  the  following  topic  statements  into  a  para- 
graph by  presenting  the  result  which  seems  naturally  to  flow  from 
each :  — 

1.  The  use  of  narcotics  is  injurious  to  the  nerves,  and 
stunts  the  growing  body. 

2.  The  school-room  was  forbidding  in  appearance :  the 
windows  were  dirty,  the  walls  were  bare  and  cheerless,  and 
the  switch  occupied  the  most  prominent  place  in  the  room. 

3.  The  framers  of  the  Constitution  thought  that  slavery 
would  die  out  after  a  time. 

4.  Poe  believed  that  every  literary  production  should  be 
short  enough  to  be  read  at  one  sitting. 

5.  Washington  knew,  better  than  Braddock,  the  methods 
of  Indian  warfare. 

6.  People  in  our  crowded  cities  have  at  last  learned  that 
good  sanitary  arrangements  are  absolutely  necessary  to  pub- 
lic health. 

7.  The  colonists,  as  English  subjects,  felt  themselves 
entitled  to  all  the  rights  guaranteed  by  the  British  Consti- 
tution. 

8.  No  two  men  diifered  more  widely  than  Hamilton  and 
Jefferson  in  their  ideas  of  government  and  finance. 

9.  Whittier  felt  keenly  the  national  disgrace  of  slavery. 

10.  Our  forefathers  thought  that  only  the  wisest  men  in 
the  nation  should  choose  the  President. 

11.  School  authorities  have  come  to  see  the  importance 
of  physical  culture. 


PARAGRAPHS. 

:2.  The  people  of  the  North  refused  to  believe  that  the 
South  was  serious  in  its  preparations  for  war  and  in  its 
threats  of  secession. 

Combination  of  Methods. 

30.  A  paragraph  may  grow  satisfactorily  by  a  single 
one  of  these  methods,  or  it  may  require  the  employment 
of  two  or  more  of  them  in  its  development.  Notice  the 
following :  — 

1.  In  few  things  is  the  great  advance  made  in  this  coun- 
try during  the  past  one  hundred  years  more  strikingly 
apparent  than  in  the  change  which  has  taken  place  in 
the  social  and  intellectual  condition  of  the  schoolmaster. 
2.  The  education  of  the  young  has  now  become  a  lucrative 
profession  by  itself,  and  numbers  among  its  followers  many 
of  the  choicest  minds  of  the  age.  3.  The  schoolmaster  is 
specially  prepared  for  his  work,  and  is  in  receipt  of  a  sum 
sufficient  to  maintain  him  in  comfort,  to  enable  him  to  pro- 
cure books,  and,  if  he  be  so  inclined,  to  travel.  4.  Book- 
sellers and  publishers  make  a  liberal  discount  in  his  behalf. 
5.  The  government  allows  him  to  import  the  text-books 
and  apparatus  used  in  his  work  duty  free.  6.  He  is  every- 
where regarded  as  an  eminently  useful  member  of  society. 
7.  But  the  lot  of  the  schoolmaster  who  taught  in  the  district 
schoolhouse  three  generations  since  fell  in  a  very  different 
time  and  among  a  very  different  people.  8.  School  was 
then  held  in  the  little  red  schoolhouse  for  two  months  in  the 
winter  by  a  man,  and  for  two  months  in  the  summer  by  a 
woman.  9.  The  boys  went  in  the  winter,  the  girls  in  the 
summer.  10.  The  master  was  generally  a  divinity  student 
who  had  graduated  at  one  of  the  academies,  who  had  scarcely 
passed  out  of  his  teens,  and  who  sought  by  the  scanty  profits 
derived  from  a  winter's  teaching  to  defray  the  expenses  of 


COMBINATION   OF  METHODS.  107 

his  study  at  Harvard  or  at  Yale.  11.  His  pay  was  small, 
yet  lie  was  never  called  upon  to  lay  out  any  portion  of  it  for 
his  keep.  12.  If  the  district  were  populous  and  wealthy, 
a  little  sum  was  annually  set  apart  for  his  board,  and  he 
was  placed  with  a  farmer  who  would,  for  that  amount,  board 
and  lodge  him  the  longest  time.  13.  But  this  was  far  too 
expensive  a  method  for  many  of  the  districts,  and  the  master 
was,  therefore,  expected  to  live  with  the  parents  of  his 
pupils,  regulating  the  length  of  his  stay  by  the  number  of 
the  boys  in  the  family  attending  his  school.  14.  Thus  it 
happened  that  in  the  course  of  his  teaching  he  became  an 
inmate  of  all  the  houses  of  the  district,  and  was  not  seldom 
forced  to  walk  live  miles,  in  the  worst  of  weather  over  the 
worst  roads,  to  his  school.  15.  Yet,  mendicant  though 
he  was,  it  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  suppose  that  he  was 
not  always  a  welcome  guest.  16.  He  slept  in  the  best 
room,  sat  in  the  warmest  nook  by  the  lire,  and  had  the  best 
food  set  before  him  at  the  table.  17.  In  the  long  winter 
evenings  he  helped  the  boys  with  their  lessons,  held  yarn 
for  the  daughters,  or  escorted  them  to  spinning  matches  or 
quiltings.  18.  In  return  for  his  miserable  pittance  and  liis 
board  the  young  student  taught  what  would  now  be  con- 
sidered as  the  rudiments  of  an.  education.  19.  His  daily 
labors  were  confined  to  teaching  his  scholars  to  read  with  a 
moderate  degree  of  fluency,  to  write  legibly,  to  spell  with 
some  regard  for  the  rules  of  orthography,  and  to  know  as 
much  of  the  rules  of  arithmetic  as  would  enable  them  to 
calculate  the  interest  on  a  debt,  to  keep  the  family  accounts, 
and  to  make  change  in  a  shop. 

—  McMaster:  History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States. 

Taken  as  a  whole  the  foregoing  paragraph  illustrates 
the  method  of  contrast,  the  condition  of  the  early 
schoolmaster  (sentences   7-19)  being    contrasted  with 


108  s  PARAGRAPHS. 

the  condition  of  the  modern  (sentences  2-6).  But  in 
the  development  of  the  contrasted  ideas,  several  other 
methods  are  exemplified.  Thus  it  is  hardly  necessary 
to  point  out  that  the  contrasted  ideas  are  themselves 
developed  by  the  method  of  particulars.  Again,  the 
ideas  in  sentences  13  and  14  are  related  to  each  other 
respectively  as  cause  and  effect,  and  the  idea  of  sentence 
15,  that  the  schoolmaster  was  a  welcome  guest,  is 
proved  by  sentence  16.  Sentence  19  gives  the  details 
necessary  to  an  understanding  of  sentence  18. 

Summary. 

Paragraphs  develop  from  a  topic  statement :  — 

1.  By  repetitions  which  add  to  the  clearness,  concreteness,  or 
emphasis  of  the  idea,  or  which  define  its  limits  positively  or 
negatively ; 

2.  By  comparisons  and  contrasts  both  positive  and  negative  ; 

3.  By  means  of  particulars  and  details  called  for  by  the 
topic ; 

4.  By  the  addition  of  specific  instances  or  other  kinds  of 
proofs  ; 

5.  By  the  statement  of  a  cause,  followed  by  the  statement 
of  an  effect  of  that  cause. 


31.       Assignments  on  Development  by  Various 
Methods. 

A.  What  methods  of  growth  and  development  can  you  find  in 
each  of  the  following  paragraphs  ?  Can  you  see  other  possible 
methods  of  growth  for  the  topic  statements  of  these  paragraphs? 

1.  Viewed  for  a  moment  dispassionately,  as  a  matter  of 
purely  natural  history,  all  animals  must  eat  to  live;  and 
life  to  the  animal,  as  to  the  man,  is  a  game  of  reasonably 


VARIOUS    METHODS,  109 

even  chances  between  eating  and  being  eaten.  All  his  life 
long  the  animal  plays  the  game,  and  if  you  watch  a  fox 
playing  ahead  of  the  dogs,  you  may  conclude  that  the 
element  of  danger  probably  adds  considerable  to  the  ani- 
mal's joy  of  living.  Peace  and  rest  are  comprehensible 
only  after  strife  and  danger.  So  long,  therefore,  as  a  man 
hunts  and  fishes  for  his  dinner  and  observes  a  reasonable 
morality  in  the  matter  of  fair  play  and  moderation,  no 
animal  could  object  to  his  hunting  and  fishing. 

—  Long  :  Brier-Patch  Philosophy,  p.  162. 

2.  The  animals  when  not  hungry  attend  severely  to  their 
own  business ;  when  they  are  seeking  food  they  prowl  and 
lie  in  ambush  and  watch  for  anything  that  may  satisfy 
their  hunger.  The  moment,  therefore,  any  animal  finds 
himself  watched  he  grows  uneasy ;  because  in  the  woods, 
when  an  animal  finds  eyes  fixed  steadily  upon  him,  he  knows 
that  in  a  moment  the  look  will  be  followed  by  the  spring 
and  rush  of  a  hunting  animal  eager  for  his  life.  That  is 
why  a  wild  animal  can  never  look  steadily  into  your  eyes, 
and  why  he  slinks  away  the  moment  he  finds  you  are  watch- 
ing him.  —  Long:  Brier-Patch  Philosophy,  p.  111. 

3.  You  will  find  in  our  railroad  offices  an  exact  record 
and  working  history  of  every  piece  of  equipment  from  a 
spike  to  a  locomotive.  Every  draw-bar,  every  coupler,  every 
passenger  coach,  and  practically  every  engine-tire  has 
to  give  an  account  of  itself.  The  performances  of  these 
"  parts  ''  are  carefully  scrutinized  and  watched.  You  will 
be  shown  all  sorts  of  diagrams,  charts,  and  volumes  of  statis- 
tics going  to  show  the  care  and  expense  devoted  to  equip- 
ment and  machinery.  But  if  you  happen  to  ask  for  a  few 
human  statistics  you  are  likely  to  be  disappointed.  For  in- 
stance, if  a  certain  train  crew  runs  a  freight  train  two  hun- 
dred times  in  a  year,  breaking  seventy  draw-bars  and  upon 


110  PARAGRAPHS. 

different  occasions  delaying  thirty-seven  passenger  trains, 
and  another  crew  under  very  similar  conditions  pulls  out 
only  thirteen  draw-bars  and  delays  only  nine  passenger 
trains,  you  may  consider  the  records  quite  important,  but  in 
the  railroad  offices  you  will  find  no  statistics  of  this  nature, 
no  comparative  statements  and  diagrams  illustrative  of  the 
workmanship  and  character  of  different  men  and  of  the 
value  and  significance  of  the  human  element  in  the  running 
of  a  railroad.  In  a  word,  you  will  infer  from  your  investi- 
gation that  if  it  isn't  a  machine  or  a  piece  of  machinery  it 
isn't  worth  bothering  about. 

4.  The  navigator  of  the  air-ship  has  so  far  been  allowed 
at  his  own  sweet  will  to  sail  hither  and  thither  in  any  di- 
rection. There  is  evidently  need  of  some  legal  regulations 
in  this  matter,  especially  as  to  the  height  above  the  earth  at 
which  he  may  be  free ;  perhaps,  also,  as  to  the  direction 
in  which  he  may  shape  his  course.  For  the  rights  of  the 
landed  proprietor  must  be  guaranteed,  and  his  property  pro- 
tected from  damage.  According  to  the  law  now  in  force  the 
property  rights  of  the  landholder  are  limited  to  the  surface 
of  the  ground  which  he  possesses.  While  he  must  have  in- 
terests in  the  atmosphere  up  to  a  certain  limited  height,  it 
is  difficult  to  say  how  high  those  rights  extend.  It  is  easy 
to  see  that  the  property-holder  is  exposed  to  damage,  even 
when  the  air-ship  sails  above  that  limited  height.  The  pro- 
prietor or  occupier  of  property  ought  therefore  to  have  some 
protection  against  damage  or  danger  from  dirigible  flying- 
machines.  It  is  an  abominable  nuisance,  for  instance,  when 
an  air-ship  or  dirigible  propelled  by  an  ill-smelling  motor 
circles  over  a  man's  garden  or  house  at  a  slight  altitude 
from  the  earth. 

"5.  The  temperature  of  the  sea  near  the  shore  varies  very 
greatly,  but  it  is  always  much  below  the  temperature  of  the 


VABIOUS    METHODS.  Ill 

body,  even  during  the  hottest  period  of  the  bathing  season. 
When  we  first  plunge  into  the  sea,  the  cold  water  causes 
more  or  less  of  a  shock  to  the  system,  and  we  breathe  deeply 
and  jerkily  for  a  moment  or  two.  Th^n  the  surface-blood- 
vessels contract  through  the  influence  of  nervous  action,  in- 
duced by  the  action  of  cold  upon  the  fine  terminations  of 
the  nerves  in  the  skin,  and  the  blood  is  retained  in  the  ves- 
sels of  internal  organs.  Eeaction  soon  occurs,  and  a  sensa- 
tion of  genial  warmth  is  felt,  the  blood  returning  to  "the 
surface.  If  the  immersion  is  continued,  this  reaction  shortly 
gives  place  to  depression,  the  intensity  of  which  depends 
upon  the  duration  of  the  immersion  and  the  temperature  of 
the  water.  After  a  while  the  depression  may  become  ex- 
treme and  exhaustion  results,  from  which  recovery  may  only 
be  possible  by  vigorous  medical  treatment.  The  total  effect 
of  a  cold  bath  which  is  not  unduly  prolonged  may,  therefore, 
be  briefly  described  as  tonic  and  bracing. 

6.  Grant  is  an  uncommon  fellow,  —  the  most  modest,  the 
most  disinterested,  and  the  most  honest  man  I  ever  knew, 
with  a  temper  that  nothing  can  disturb,  and  a  judgment  that 
is  judicial  in  its  comprehensiveness  and  wisdom.  Not  a 
great  man,  except  morally;  not  an  original  or  brilliant  man, 
but  sincere,  thoughtful,  deep  and  gifted  with  courage  that 
never  falters,  but  when  the  time  comes  to  risk  all,  he  goes 
in  like  a  simple-hearted,  unaffected,  unpretending  hero,  whom 
no  ill  omens  can  deject,  and  no  triumph  unduly  elate.  A 
social,  friendly  man,  too,  fond  of  a  pleasant  joke,  and  ready 
with  one,  too ;  but  above  all,  fond  of  a  long  chat  of  an  even- 
ing, and  ready  to  sit  up  with  you  all  night,  talking  in  the 
cool  breeze  in  front  of  his  tent.  Not  a  man  of  sentimen- 
tality, not  demonstrative  in  friendship,  but,  I  note,  always 
holding  to  his  friends,  and  just  even  to  the  enemies  he  hates. 

—  C.  A.  Dana. 


112  PARAGRAPHS, 

B.  The  following  ode  by  Sir  William  Jones  was  written,  in 
1781,  "  in  a  paroxysm  of  indignation  against  the  American  war, 
the  slave  trade,  and  the  general  decline  of  British  liberty."  What 
methods  of  developing  the  thought  are  employed? 


What  constitutes  a  State  ? 
Not  high-raised  battlement  or  labored  mound, 

Thick  wall  or  moated  gate ; 
Not  cities  proud  with  spires  and  turrets  crowned ; 

Not  bays  and  broad-armed  ports, 
Where,  laughing  at  the  storm,  rich  navies  ride ; 

Not  starred  and  spangled  courts. 
Where  low-browed  baseness  wafts  perfume  to  pride. 

No :  men,  high-minded  men, 
With  powers  as  far  above  dull  brutes  endued, 

In  forest,  brake,  or  den. 
As  beasts  excel  cold  rocks  and  brambles  rude; 

Men  who  their  duties  know. 
But  know  their  rights,  and,  knowing,  dare  maintain, 

Prevent  the  long-aimed  blow. 
And  crush  the  tyrant  while  they  rend  the  chain : 

These  constitute  a  State, 
And  sovereign  Law,  that  State's  collected  will, 

O'er  thrones  and  globes  elate 
Sits  empress,  crowning  good,  repressing  ill ; 

Smit  by  her  sacred  frown. 
The  fiend.  Dissension,  like  a  vapor  sinks. 

And  e'en  the  all-dazzling  Crown 
Hides  his  faint  rays,  and  at  her  bidding  shrinks. 

Such  was  this  heaven-loved  isle. 
Than  Lesbos  fairer,  and  the  Cretan  shore ! 

No  more  shall  Freedom  smile  ? 
Shall  Britons  languish,  and  be  men  no  more  ? 


VARIOUS  METHODS,  113 

Since  all  must  life  resign, 
Those  sweet  rewards  which  decorate  the  brave 

'Tis  folly  to  decline, 
And  steal  inglorious  to  the  silent  grave. 

C.  Complete  the  development  begun  in  each  of  the  following 
paragraphs,  with  the  hints  given  in  connection  with  each. 

1.  In  business  correspondence  the  value  of  good  usage  is 
still  more  manifest  than  in  conversation,  since  the  written 
word  is  permanent,  and  correspondence  greatly  extends  the 
field  of  one's  intercourse.  A  letter  very  probably  passes 
through  many  hands  and  multiplies  the  good  or  bad  impres- 
sions of  the  writer  it  produces.  If  its  import  is  not  clear,  it 
may  cause  disagreement  or  involve  serious  financial  disad- 
vantage to  the  writer.  Even  bad  punctuation  will  often  se- 
riously alter  the  entire  meaning  of  a  sentence,  and  partic- 
ularly bad  grammar  at  once  stamps  a  writer  as  being  more 
or  less  of  an  ignoramus.     The  art  of  letter  writing . 

2.  Sounds  do  not  always  give  us  pleasure  according  to 
their  sweetness  and  melody;  nor  do  harsh  sounds  always 
displease. 

3.  How  differently  tenants  treat  rented  property  intrusted 
to  their  care !  One  class  seem  utterly  careless  of  appear- 
ances .  .  .  ^particulars']  ...  On  the  other  hand,  some  ten- 
ants take  pride  in  keeping  the  property  in  repair  . .  .  [^otJier 
particulars]  .  .  .  Landlords  .are  fortunate  in  securing  ten- 
ants of  this  class,  but  they  do  not  expect  such  to  stay  long, 
for  such  industrious  and  careful  persons  usually  manage 
after  a  time  to  .  .  .  [_ particular  result  of  industry]. 

4.  Every  boy  has  somewhere  stored  away  in  his  mind  the 
memory  of  some  thrilling  personal  adventure  or  delightful 
personal  experience.  As  often  as  he  thinks  of  it  .  .  .  [^result] 
...     It    is    as   if  .  .  .  [^co7nparison  to  bring  out  the  vividness 


114  PARAGRAPHS. 

of  the  recollection']  .  .  .  Such  was  the  experience  which 
came  to  me  .  .  .  \^  particular s^  time,  place,  circumstances'] 
.  .  .  The  upshot  of  the  whole  matter  was  .  .  .  [^i-esult]. 

5.  It  is  probable  that  the  southern  states  would  not  have 
begun  the  Civil  War  had  the  southern  people  realized  the 
great  wealth  and  resources  of  the  populous  North.  Had 
they  known  of  the  .  .  .  \^ particulars,  specifying  resources] 
.  .  .  they  would  not  so  hastily  .  .  .  [^result]  .  .  .  The  leaders 
of  the  secession  movement  doubtless  did  not  underestimate 
the  strength  of  the  North,  though  they  did  misunderstand 
its  temper.  But  the  plain  people  of  the  South  who  filled 
the  southern  armies  and  bore  the  heaviest  burdens  of  the 
conflict .  .  .  [^contrast]  .  .  .  They  were  misled  by  appeals 
to  their  state  pride,  while  the  real  facts  as  to  the  power  and 
spirit  of  the  North  were  concealed  from  them.  That  they 
maintained  a  brave  and  stubborn  contest  so  long  was  due 
....  [cause  and  effect]  .  .  .  ;  their  uniform  success  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war  was  mainly  owing  .  .  .  [cause  and 
effect]  .  .  .  Once  the  North  was  fully  aroused  .  .  .  [resi.iU] 
.  .  .     They  were  clearly  over-matched. 

6.  There  are  times  in  the  life  of  every  one  when  new  and 
strange  things  occur  with  such  rapidity  that  one  is  hardly 
able  to  catch  one's  breath  between  the  happenings.  It  is  as 
though  .  .  .  [analogy  to  show  suddenness  of  change]  .  .  . 
To-day  one  may  be  ...  [contrast]  .  .  .  Twenty -four  hours 
may  .  .  .  [repetition  emphasizing  rapidity  of  events]  .  .  . 
It  was  so  with  .  .  .  [example  from  history]  .  .  .  when 
he  .  .  .  [particulars]  .  .  .  From  such  sudden  changes 
one  may  come  forth  much  stronger  in  character,  and  .  .  . 
[result]. 

7.  During  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Westinghouse  Elec- 
tric Manufacturing  Company  at  Pittsburg  recently,  a  test 
was  made  of  a  new  railway  electric   motor.      This  motor 


VARIOUS  METHODS,  115 

easily  drew  several  loaded  freight  cars  at  a  rapid  rate  and 
with  a  low  supply  of  electricity,  and  the  opinion  was  general 
that  in  this  invention  there  has  been  found  an  economical 
substitute  for  steam  power  on  long-distance  railways.  If 
this  should  prove  to  be  the  case  .  .  .  [res?^?^s]  .  .  .  These 
changes  are  sure  to  come  in  time,  because  .  .  .  [proofs 
sliowing  their  desirability']  .  .  .  The  only  thing  that  can 
delay  the  substitution  of  electric  for  steam  power  is  the 
question  of  expense  .  .  .  [^particulars']  .  .  .  But  .  .  .  [con- 
trast sliowing  that  this  objection  will  be  overcome]  .  .  . 
The  present  situation  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  which 
existed  when  .  .  .  [comparison  showing  that  expense  did 
not  prevent  the  adoption  of  an  earlier  invention]  ...  It  will 
be  so  with  this  latest  invention.  The  extraordinary  de- 
mand for  the  new  motor  will  enable  the  manufacturers  to 
furnish  it  at  rates  very  much  lower  than  now  appear  pos- 
sible ;  and  we  may,  therefore,  expect  .  .  .  [final  result]. 

p.  What  method  of  growth  and  development  do  you  expect 
from  each  of  the  following  topic  statements?  Think  what  you 
might  say  if  called  upon  to  write  on  any  or  all  of  them  in  class. 
Which  of  these  sentences  suggests  more  than  one  method  of 
growth  ? 

• 

1.  Some  of  the  songs  of  Burns  are  favorites  with  all 
classes  of  people. 

2.  Tarn,  o'  Shanter  teaches  a  valuable  lesson. 

3.  Burns's  poetry  is  characterized  by  rugged  strength 
and  vigor. 

4.  Christmas  is  the  joy  of  old  and  young  alike. 

5.  We  should  not  complain  if  a  man  who  is  both  good 
and  great  lacks  riches  and  honors. 

6.  Some  people  seem  to  be  ashamed  of  cultivating  good 
manners. 

7.  Conversation  is  a  fine  art. 


116  PARAGBAPHS. 

8.  The  other  day  I  heard  an  amusing  blunder  in  the  use 
of  English. 

9.  There  are  perils  in  school  life  at  home  as  well  as  away 
from  home. 

10.  It  is  hard  to  say  just  what  true  hospitality  is,  though 
we  all  know  it  when  we  experience  it. 

11.  This  town  looked  very  different  twenty  years  ago. 

12.  Many  pf  our  soldiers  in  the  Philippines  came  back 
with  new  ideas  and  habits. 

13.  It  is  a  very  serious  thing  to  be  a  doctor. 

E.  The  following  poem  is  by  Wordsworth.  Does  the  title 
express  clearly  and  fully  the  theme  of  the  poem  ?  If  not,  state  the 
theme  in  a  single  compact  sentence,  avoiding,  if  you  can,  the  lan- 
guage of  the  poet.  What,  in  your  opinion,  led  to  the  writing  of 
this  poem  ?  What  comes  into  your  mind  when  you  read  the  lines 
"  overflowing  with  the  sound,"  "  old,  unhappy,  far-off  things  "  ?  Do 
you  think  "melancholy  strain,"  in  the  first  stanza,  is  consistent 
with  "welcome  notes,"  in  the  second?  What  contrasts  in  mood 
do  you  find  in  the  poem  ?  What  contrasts  in  idea  ?  What  com- 
parisons are  there,  expressed  and  implied  ?  What  means  has  the 
poet  used  for  the  development  of  the  main  idea?  Trace  the  devel- 
opment through  the  four  stanzas,  expressing  in  a  phrase  or  sen- 
tence the  idea  of  each  stanza. 


THE  SOLITARY  REAPER. 

Behold  her,  single  in  the  field, 
Yon  solitary  Highland  Lass  ! 
Heaping  and  singing  by  herself; 
Stop  here,  or  gently  pass ! 
Alone  she  cuts  and  binds  the  grain. 
And  sings  a  melancholy  strain  ; 
O  listen !  for  the  Vale  profound 
Is  overflowing  with  the  sound. 


MEANS   OF  CONNECTION.  117 

No  Nightingale  did  ever  chaunt 
More  welcome  notes  to  weary  bands 
Of  travellers  in  some  shady  haunt, 
Among  Arabian  sands  : 
A  voice  so  thrilling  ne'er  was  heard 
In  springtime  from  the  Cuckoo-bird, 
Breaking  the  silence  of  the  seas 
Among  the  farthest  Hebrides. 

Will  no  one  tell  me  what  she  sings  ?  — 

Perhaps  the  plaintive  numbers  flow 

For  old,  unhappy,  far-off  things. 

And  battles  long  ago : 

Or  is  it  some  more  humble  lay, 

Familiar  matter  of  to-day  ? 

Some  natural  sorrow,  loss,  or  pain, 

That  has  been,  and  may  be  again  ? 

Whatever  the  theme,  the  Maiden  sang 
As  if  her  song  could  have  no  ending ; 
I  saw  her  singing  at  her  work. 
And  o'er  the  sickle  bending  ;  — 
I  listened,  motionless  and  still  ; 
And,  as  I  mounted  up  the  hill. 
The  music  in  my  heart  I  bore, 
Long  after  it  was  heard  no  more. 

Means  of  Connection. 

32.  If  the  topics  in  the  plan  have  been  well  managed, 
the  reader  will  not  need  much  help  in  passing  from  one 
topic  to  the  next.  Occasionally,  however,  in  a  long 
essay,  we  find  a  brief  paragraph  of  transition  inserted 
between  the  treatment  of  two  topics  and  containing  a 
reference  back  to  the  topic  that  precedes,  and  a  reference 


118  PARAGRAPHS. 

forward  to  the  topic  that  follows.  This  is  seen  in  the 
following.  The  writer  has  treated  of  Milton's  poetry, 
and  his  next  topic  is  the  objections  that  have  been  urged 
against  Milton's  prose. 

Erom  Milton's  poetry  we  turn  to  his  prose  ;  and  first  it  is 
objected  to  his  prose  writings  that  the  style  is  difficult  and 
obscure,  abounding  in  involutions,  transpositions,  and  Latin- 
isms  ;  that  his  protracted  sentences  exhaust  and  weary  the 
mind,  and  too  often  yield  it  no  better  recompense  than  con- 
fused and  indistinct  perceptions.  -^  Chaining  :  Milton. 

Channing's  next  paragraph  is  occupied  with  a  consid- 
eration of  these  objections  to  Milton's  prose. 

Usually  the  transition  from  one  topic  to  the  next  re- 
quires but  a  single  sentence,  clause,  or  phrase.  The  first 
words  in  a  paragraph  frequently  repeat  or  echo  the 
thought  with  which  the  preceding  paragraph  closed. 
Thus:  — 

As  the  education  and  even  the  employment  of  the  two 
sexes  are  plainly  coming  nearer  together,  —  contrary  to  what 
used  to  be  predicted  as  the  result  of  advancing  civilization, 
—  it  would  seem  that  the  problem  of  education  must  be  in 
this  respect  much  the  same  for  both.  Yet  there  are  undoubt- 
edly many  parents  who,  while  able  to  see  the  advantages  of 
a  more  public  education  for  boys,  draw,  the  line  there,  and 
demand  for  their  growing  daughters  what  is  called  "  a  select 
school." 

My  own  impression  is  that  this  distinction  is  a  mistake, 
and  that  whatever  arguments  apply  to  public  school  educa- 
tion for  boys  must  reach  girls  also.  In  the  first  place, 
girls  need,  even  more  than  boys,  to  learn  at  school  the 
qualities  and  merits  of  those  in  a  different   social   circle, 


MEANS   OF  CONNECTION.  119 

because  if  they  do  not  learn  it  then,  they  may  never  learn 
it,  etc.  —  HiGGiNSON :   The  Contagion  of  Manners. 

In  the  first  of  the  next  two  paragraphs  De  Quincey 
(^Autobiography^  II,  440)  summarizes  a  long  discussion 
that  preceded  concerning  the  number  of  Wordsworth's 
friends.  His  next  topic  is  the  touching  story  of  little 
Catherine  Wordsworth.  Notice  how  the  summary  is 
managed  so  as  to  effect  the  transition  needed. 

Except,  therefore,  with  the  Lloyds,  or  occasionally  with 
Thomas  Wilkinson  the  Quaker,  or  very  rarely  with  Southey, 
Wordsworth  had  no  intercourse  at  all  beyond  the  limits  of 
Grasmere;  and  in  that  valley  I  was  myself,  for  some  years, 
his  sole  visiting  friend;  as,  on  the  other  hand,  my  sole 
visitors,  as  regarded  that  vale,  were  himself  and  his  family. 

Among  that  family .  .  .  was  a  little  girl  whose  life  .  .  .  and 
whose  death  .  .  .  connected  themselves  with  the  records  of 
my  own  life  by  ties  of  passion  so  profound,  by  a  grief  so 
frantic,  .  .  . 

Make  clear  the  connection  between  related  paragraphs,  first, 
by  a  logical  order  of  topics,  second,  when  necessary,  by  the  use  of 
transitional  paragraphs,  repetitions,  and  reference  words. 

33.      Assignments  on  Means  of  Connection. 

A.  Find  all  of  the  means  of  paragraph-connection  used  in  the 
following  selection.  Name  and  explain  the  relationship  which 
each  connective  indicates. 

To  create  for  himself  an  independent  position,  a  man 
must  be  young.  Unless  he  is,  he  cannot  confront  without 
flinching  —  and  surmount  —  the  difficulties  which  bristle  at 
the  entrance  of  all  enterprises.  Besides,  youth  is  the  best 
age  for  learning  a  trade  or  profession. 

But  the  aspiring  official  is  kept  in  suspense,  at  least  until 


120  PARAGRAPHS. 

he  is  twenty  years  of  age,  very  often  twenty -five,  sometimes 
thirty  and  beyond.  When  he  has  finally  lost  all  hope  of 
success,  a  great  many  careers  are  closed  to  him ;  he  is  too 
late  for  any,  because  beginnings  are  long,  arduous,  and  ill- 
paid.  Besides,  the  older,  the  more  exacting  he  is  —  and  the 
more  exacting  a  man  is,  the  less  likely  is  he  to  find  a  situa- 
tion. Time  goes  on,  the  man  grows  older,  and  the  difficul- 
ties increase. 

Youth  is  not  everything,  however ;  our  young  man  must 
show  natural  ability,  inclination,  technical  knowledge.  No 
one  is  made  a  farmer,  a  manufacturer,  a  merchant,  or  a 
tradesman,  in  one  day.  All  these  careers  require  an  ap- 
prenticeship, and  the  best  is  found  in  practice  and  family 
traditions. 

Our  school  training  does  not  prepare  for  any  of  these 
avocations.  On  the  contrary,  it  inspires  the  young  people 
with  disgust,  it  teaches  them  the  alleged  superiority  of  pub- 
lic functions.  How  many  heads  of  families  whose  positions 
rest  on  agriculture,  industry,  or  trade,  wonder  at  hearing 
their  sons — just  out  of  school — declare  that  they  cannot  con- 
tinue the  paternal  calling !  The  school  has  disgusted  them 
with  it. 

This  influence  on  the  part  of  the  school  is  becoming  so 
general  that  we  have  come  to  deplore  nowadays  the  estrange- 
ment of  French  young  men  from  the  more  usual  occupations, 
which,  however,  are  also  the  most  useful  and  honorable. 

In  consequence,  those  young  men  who,  having  failed  in 
their  examinations,  are  obliged  to  throw  themselves  on  such 
callings,  only  do  so  on  compulsion,  half-heartedly,  without 
natural  dispositions  or  sufficient  special  education  —  in  short, 
in  the  very  worst  of  conditions  for  assuring  success. 

However,  besides  official  functions,  our  educational  regime 
particularly  predisposes  young  men  to  all  kinds  of  office  or 
administrative  work  as  well  as  the  liberal  professions. 


MEANS   OF  CONNECTION,  121 

Any  preference  for  the  former  is  easily  accounted  for  by 
the  analogy  with  the  work  of  public  offices.  .The' same  apti- 
tudes are  required,  and  there  is  as  little  demand  for  initia- 
tive, exercise  of  will-power,  of  constant  effort ;  on  the  other 
hand,  equal  security  is  offered :  advancement  is  slow  and 
sure,  inevitable. 

So  young  Frenchmen  who  have  failed  in  their  examina- 
tions willingly  turn  to  these  administrations,  as  the  French 
word  is.     We  all  know  that  they  are  besieged  by  a  crowd  of 
candidates,  to  all  of  whom  it  is  impossible  to  give  berths. 
—  E.  Demolins  :  Anglo-Saxon  Superiority. 

B.  Examine  a  number  of  your  old  essays  in  order  to  notice 
how  many  of  the  devices  of  connection  and  transition  you  use  in 
your  own  composition. 

C.  In  the  following  paragraphs  the  means  of  connection  have 
been  omitted.     Supply  them  at  the  points  indicated. 

In  reading  the  Russian  papers,  the  Czar  noticed  that  they 
were  not  so  outspoken  as  the  papers  of  other  countries.  He 
noticed  ^  that,  in  their  guarded  utterances,-  he  never  found 
any  reference  to  official  abuses  which,  he  knew,  must  exist 
in  Russia  as  in  other  countries.  He  knew  y^  that  there  is  a 
censorship  of  the  press  in  his  realm,  but  he  had  not  the 
slightest  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  the  censors  suppress 
independent  expressions  in  the  papers.  He  determined  y^ 
that  at  least  one  paper  sTiould  be  perfectly  free  to  criticise 
the  government,  y^  he  summoned  the  editor  of  The  St. 
Petersburg  Viedomosti,  a  paper  that  has  been  published  for 
one  hundred  seventy  years,  and  announced  his  intention  o'f 
relieving  him  of  censure.  When  the  high  officials  learned 
of  the  Czar's  purpose,  they  j^  advised  strongly  against  it. 
The  Czar  yy  remained  firm.  Then  the  officials  had  recourse 
to  an  old  and   well-tried  method   of   circumventing   their 


122  PARAGRAPHS. 

imperial  master,  and  of  saving  themselves  from  exposure. 
They  provided  the  editor  with  a  position  in  the  Riisso- 
Chinese  Bank  at  a  princely  salary,  and  subscribed  for  many 
thousands  of  copies  of  the  paper.  The  prosperity  of  the 
Viedomosti  is  yy  assured.  It  is  yy  a  prosperity  that  depends 
on  continued  official  favor.  The  paper  is  free  to  criticise ; 
/y  strange  to  say,  it  shows  less  disposition  to  find  fault  with 
the  official  classes  than  before  it  was  relieved  of  censorship, 
yy  its  freedom  is  an  illusion.     y\  the  Czar  is  puzzled. 

There  is  no  enlargement,  unless  there  be  a  comparison^ of 
ideas  one  with  another,  as  they  come  before  the  mind,  and 
a  systematizing  of  them.  We  feel  our  minds  to  be  growing 
and  expanding  then,  when  we  not  only  learn,  but  refer  what 
we  learn  to  what  we  know  already,  /y  a  truly  great  intellect 
is  one  which  takes  a  connected  view  of  old  and  new,  past 
and  present,  far  and  near,  and  which  has  an  insight  into  the 
influence  of  all  these,  one  on  another ;  without  which  there 
is  no  whole,  and  no  centre.  It  possesses  the  knowledge,  not 
only  of  things,  but  also  of  their  mutual  and  true  relations ; 
knowledge,  not  merely  considered  as  an  acquirement,  but  as 
philosophy. 

yy  when  this  analytical,  distributive,  harmonizing  process 
is  away,  the  mind  experiences  no  enlargement,  and  is  not 
reckoned  as  enlightened  or  comprehensive,  whatever  it  may 
add  to  its  knowledge,  yy  a  great  memory,  as  I  have  already 
said,  does  not  make  a  philosopher,  any  more  than  a  diction- 
ary can  be  called  a  grammar.  There  are  men  who  embrace 
iii  their  minds  a  vast  multitude  of  ideas,  yy  with  little  sensi- 
bility about  their  real  relations  toward  each  other.  ^  if 
they  are  nothing  more  than  well-read  men,  or  men  of  infor- 
mation, they  have  not  what  specially  deserves  the  name  of 
culture  of  mind,  or  fulfills  the  type  of  Liberal  Education. 


MEANS  OF  CONNECTION.  123 

A  we  sometimes  fall  in  with  persons  who  have  seen  much 
of  the  world,  and  of  the  men  who,  in  their  day,  have  played 
a  conspicuous  part  in  it,  yy  who  generalize  nothing,  and  have 
no  observation,  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.  They  abound 
in  information  in  detail,  curious  and  entertaining,  about  men 
and  things ;  a  having  lived  under  the  influence  of  no  very 
clear  or  settled  principles,  they  speak  of  every  one  and  every 
thing,  only  as  so  many  phenomena,  which  are  complete 
in  themselves,  and  lead  to  nothing,  not  discussing  them, 
or  teaching  any  truth,  or  instructing  the  hearer,  yy  simply 
talking. 

There  are  virtues,  ^  which  the  world  is  not  fitted  to  judge 
of  or  to  uphold,  such  as  faith,  hope,  and  charity ;  a  i^  can 
judge  about  truthfulness ;  it  can  judge  about  the  natural 
virtues,  and  truthfulness  is  one  of  them.  Natural  virtues  a 
became  supernatural ;  truthfulness  is  such,  yy  that  does  not 
withdraw  it  from  the  jurisdiction  of  mankind  at  large. 

About  this  time  I  met  with  an  odd  volume  of  The  Spec- 
tator. I  had  never  before  seen  any  of  them.  I  bought  it, 
read  it  over  and  over,  and  was  much  delighted  with  it.  I 
thought  the  writing  excellent,  and  wished  if  possible  to  imi- 
tate it.  y\  I  took  some  of  the  papers,  and  making  short 
hints  of  the  sentiments  in  each  sentence,  laid  them  by  a  few 
days,  A  without  looking  at  the  book,  tried  to  complete  the 
papers  again,  by  expressing  each  hinted  sentiment  at  length, 
A  as  fully  as  it  had  been  expressed  before,  in  any  suitable 
Avords  that  should  occur  to  me.  a  I  compared  my  Spectator 
with  the  original,  discovered  some  of  my  faults,  and  cor- 
rected them,  /y  I  found  I  wanted  a  stock  of  words,  or  a 
readiness  in  recollecting  and  using  them,  which  I  thought  I 
should  have  acquired  before  that  time,  if  I  had  gone  on  mak- 
ing verses ;  a  ^^^  continual  search  for  words  of  the  same 
import  A  of  different  length  to  suit  the  measure,  or  of  differ- 


124  PARAGRAPHS. 

ent  sound  for  the  rhyme,  would  have  laid  me  under  a  con- 
stant necessity  of  searching  for  variety,  a  have  tended  to  fix 
that  variety  in  my  mind,  and  make  me  master  of  it.  /^  I 
took  some  of  the  tales  in  The  Spectator,  /^  turned  them  into 
verse ;  yy  after  a  time,  when  I  had  pretty  well  forgotten  the 
prose,  turned  them  back  again. 

I  yy  sometimes  jumbled  my  collection  of  hints  into  confu- 
sion, yy  after  some  weeks  endeavored  to  reduce  them  into  the 
best  order  yy  I  began  to  form  the  full  sentences  and  complete 
the  subject.  This  was  to  teach  me  method  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  thoughts.  By  comparing  my  work  with  the  original, 
I  discovered  many  faults,  and  corrected  them ;  yy  I  sometimes 
had  the  pleasure  to  fancy  that,  in  certain  particulars  of  small 
consequence,  I  had  been  fortunate  enough  to  improve  the 
method  or  the  language,  yy  this  encouraged  me  to  think  that 
I  might  in  time  come  to  be  a  tolerable  English  writer,-  of 
which  I  was  extremely  ambitious. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SENTENCES. 
Introduction. 

34.  Having  studied  the  larger  independent  units  of 
composition,  and  the  smaller  units,  called  paragraphs, 
of  which  they  are  composed,  we  are  now  ready  to  take 
up  the  still  minuter  elements  that  go  to  the  making  of 
paragraphs.     These  last  are  sentences. 

Whether  standing  independently  by  itself  or  uniting 
with  other  related  sentences  to  make  a  paragraph,  every 
sentence  should  be  a  unit.  Both  for  the  reader  and  for 
the  writer  this  is  a  principle  of  the  greatest  importance. 
In  order  that  reader  and  writer  may  understand  one  an- 
other readily,  each  must  recognize  that  the  capital  letter 
at  the  beginning  and  the  period  at  the  close  always  mark 
off  a  thought.  The  reader  is  disappointed  if  what  is  of- 
fered to  him  as  a  sentence  is  really  only  a  piece  of  a 
sentence,  or  if  two  sentences  are  wrongfully  united. 
All  readers  of  novels  are  familiar  with  such  a  furious 
separation  of  things  belonging  together,  as  is  seen  in 
the  following  :  "  I  acted  as  if  I  were  angry.  Though 
really  I  didn't  mind  what  he  said."  This  should  be 
written,  "  I  acted  as  if  I  were  angry,  though  really  I 
didn't  mind  what  he  said."  Not  uncommon  are  wrong 
combinations,  as,  "  The  rain  was  falling,  therefore  they 
hurried  in,"  which  is  better  written  :  "  The  rain  was 

125 


126  SENTENCES. 

falling.      Therefore   they  hurried   in,"  or  still  better, 
"  Since  the  rain  was  falling,  they  hurried  in." 

Complex  and  Corapound  Sentences. 

35.  The  question  whether  a  thought  should  be  ex- 
pressed in  simple  sentences,  or  in  a  complex  or  a  com- 
pound sentence,  is  a  question  of  logic.  Does  the  sen- 
tence say  what  it  was  intended  to  say  ?  Does  it  express 
the  relation,  coordinate  or  subordinate,  that  the  writer 
meant  to  express  ?  In  "  I  shouted  to  my  companion  to 
jump,  and  the  danger  was  over,"  the  two  facts  are  joined 
in  a  compound  sentence  by  the  word  "  and,"  as  if  they 
were  coordinate  ;  but  a  moment's  reflection  shows  that 
the  relation  intended  is  a  subordinate  relation,  and  there- 
fore demands  a  complex  sentence  for  its  true  expression. 
We  try,  "  I  shouted  to  my  companion  to  jump,  —  when 
the  danger  was  over,"  but  we  find  that  now  we  have 
subordinated  the  principal  statement.  The  sentence 
should  read,  "  When  I  shouted  to  my  companion  to 
jump,  the  danger  was  over,"  or,  "  Before  I  could  shout 
to  my  companion  to  jump,  the  danger  was  over."  In 
short,  the  compound  sentence  must  express  a  real,  and  not 
merely  a  pretended,  coordination  of  ideas,  and  a  complex 
sentence  must  express  real  subordination,  putting  the  main 
idea  in  the  principal  clause  and  not  in  some  modifier. 

Danger  of  Overcrowding. 

36.  Even  when  the  sentence  is  logical  and  all  the 
details  are  relevant  (as  they  are  in  the  sentence  below), 
there  is  danger  of  overcrowding.  It  is  false  economy  to 
try  to  make  one  sentence  tell  too  much,  for  then  the  main 
idea  is  harder  to  find. 


DANGER   OF  OVERCROWDING.  127 

Of  the  French  town,  properly  so  called,  in  which  the  prod- 
uct of  successive  ages,  not  without  lively  touches  of  the 
present,  are  blended  together  harmoniously  with  a  beauty 
specific  —  a  beauty  cisalpine  and  northern,  yet  at  the  same 
time  quite  distinct  from  the  massive  German  picturesque 
of  Ulm,  or  Freiburg,  or  Augsburg,  and  of  which  Turner  has 
found  the  ideal  in  certain  of  his  studies  of  the  rivers  of 
France,  a  perfectly  happy  conjunction  of  river  and  town 
being  of  the  essence  of  its  physiognomy  —  the  town  of 
Auxerre  is  perhaps  the  most  complete  realization  to  be  found 
by  the  actual  wanderer. — Pater. 

Contrast  with  the  illustration  just  given,  the  follow- 
ing letter  by  Abraham  Lincoln  to  Mrs.  Bixby  of  Boston. 
In  tliis  letter,  each  sentence  stands  for  one  clear  thought  ; 
each  goes  straight  to  the  mark  ;  and  a  second  reading  is 
not  needed  for  a  definite  understanding  of  the  thoughts 
as  they  come  along  in  orderly  succession. 

Dear  Madam  :  —  I  have  been  shown  in  the  files  of  the 
War  Department  a  statement  of  the  adjutant  general  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, that  you  are  the  mother  of  five  sons  who  have 
died  gloriously  on  the  field  of  battle.  I  feel  how  weak  and 
fruitless  must  be  any  words  of  mine  which  should  attempt 
to  beguile  you  from  the  grief  of  a  loss  so  overwhelming. 
But  I  cannot  refrain  from  tendering  to  you  the  consolation 
that  may  be  found  in  the  thanks  of  the  republic  they  died  to 
save.  I  pray  that  our  Heavenly  Father  may  assuage  the 
anguish  of  your  bereavement,  and  leave  you  only  the  cher- 
ished memory  of  the  loved  and  lost,  and  the  solemn  pride 
that  must  be  yours  to  have  laid  so  costly  a  sacrifice  upon  the 
altar  of  freedom.     Very  respectfully  yours, 

Abraham  Lincoln. 


128       •  SENTENCES. 

Long  and  Short  Sentences. 

37.  Lowell's  rule  is  worth  remembering:  "It  was 
always  present  to  my  consciousness  that  whatever  I 
said  must  be  understood  at  once  by  my  hearers,  or 
never.  Out  of  this  I,  almost  without  knowing  it,  for- 
mulated the  rule  that  every  sentence  must  be  clear  in 
itself,  and  never  too  long  to  be  carried,  without  risk  of 
losing  its  balance,  on  a  single  breath  of  the  speaker." 

As  Lowell  implies,  the  long  sentence  is  more  likely 
to  become  confused  than  the  short  sentence  ;  but  aside 
from  this  danger,  the  length  of  a  sentence  has  nothing  to 
do  with  its  unity.  The  following  sentence  from  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson  shows  one  way  of  unifying  a  longtsen- 
tence  ;  namely,  by  keeping  the  same  form  of  statemeit  for 
the  parts  that  do  the  same  vrork  in  the  sentence. 

To  be  honest,  to  be  kind,  to  earn  a  little,  to  spend  less ; 
to  make  upon  the  whole  a  family  happier  by  his  presence ; 
to  renounce  where  that  shall  be  necessary,  and  not  to  be 
embittered ;  to  keep  a  few  friends,  but  these  without  capitu- 
lation ;  above  all,  on  the  same  grim  conditions  to  keep  friends 
with  himself  —  here  is  a  task  for  all  that  a  man  has  of  for- 
titude and  delicacy. 

Both  long  sentences  and  short  sentences  have  their 
peculiar  uses.  These  can  best  be  understood  by  notic- 
ing them  as  they  appear  in  combination  in  paragraphs. 
A  short  sentence  among  longer  ones  arrests  attention  by- 
its  very  brevity,  abruptness,  and  directness.  Conse- 
quently, a  topic  statement,  an  important  transition,  or 
a  summary  will  often  be  expressed  in  a  short  striking 
sentence,  the  longer  sentences  being  used  for  explanii- 


LONG    AND    SHOBT    SENTENCES.  129 

tions  and  for  groups  of  particulars  and  details.     Notice 
this  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

[Topic]  Our  arts  are  happy  hits.  [Explanation  by  illus- 
tration] We  are  like  the  musician  on  the  lake,  whose  melody 
is  sweeter  than  he  knows,  or  like  a  traveller,  surprised  by  a 
mountain  echo,  whose  trivial  word  returns  to  him  in  roman- 
tic thunders.  —  Emerson  :   Essay  on  Art. 

[Topic]  I  am  not  going  to  write  the  history  of  La  Pucelle; 
[Explanation]  to  do  this,  or  even  circumstantially  to  report 
the  history  of  her  persecution  and  bitter  death,  of  her  strug- 
gle with  false  witnesses  and  with  ensnaring  judges,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  have  before  us  all  the  documents,  and  there- 
fore the  collection  only  now  forthcoming  in  Paris.  [Tran- 
sition] But  my  p)urpose  is  narrower.  [Explanation]  There 
have  been  great  thinkers,  disdaining  the  careless  judgments 
of  contemporaries,  who  have  thrown  themselves  boldly  on 
the  judgment  of  a  far  posterity,  that  should  have  had  time 
to  review,  to  ponder,  to  compare.  There  have  been  great 
actors  on  the  stage  of  tragic  humanity  that  might,  with  the 
same  depth  of  confidence,  have  appealed  from  the  levity  of 
compatriot  friends  —  too  heartless  for  the  sublime  interest  of 
their  story,  and  too  impatient  for  the  labor  of  sifting  its 
perplexities  —  to  the  magnanimity  and  justice  of  enemies. 
[Transition]  To  this  class  belongs  the  Maid  of  Arc.  The 
ancient  Eomans  were  too  faithful  to  the  ideal  of  grandeur  in 
themselves  not  to  relent,  after  a  generation  or  two,  before 
the  grandeur  of  Hannibal.  Mithridates,  a  more  doubtful 
person,  yet  merely  for  the  magic  perseverance  of  his  indom- 
itable malice,  won  from  the  same  Romans  the  only  real 
honor  that  ever  he  received  on  earth.  [Transition]  And  we 
English  have  ever  shown  the  same  homage  to  stubborn  enmity. 
To  work  unflinchingly  for  the  ruin  of  England;  to  say 
through  life,  by  word  and  by  deed,  Delenda  est  Anglia  Victrix  I 


130  SENTENCES. 

—  that  one  purpose  of  malice,  faithfully  pursued,  has  quar- 
tered some  people  upon  our  national  funds  of  homage  as  by 
a  perpetual  annuity.  ...  On  the  same  principle,  La  Pucelle 
d'Orleans,  the  victorious  enemy  of  England,  has  been  des- 
tined to  receive  her  deepest  commemoration  from  the  mag- 
nanimous justice  of  Englishmen. 

—  DeQuincey:  Joan  of  Arc. 

Sir,  whilst  we  held  this  happy  course,  we  drew  more  from 
the  Colonies  than  all  the  impotent  violence  of  despotism 
ever  could  extort  from  them.  We  did  this  abundantly  in 
the  last  war.  It  has  never  been  once  denied;  and  what 
reason  have  we  to  imagine  that  the  Colonies  would  not  have 
proceeded  in  supplying  government  as  liberally,  if  you  had 
not  stepped  in  and  hindered  them  from  contributing,  by 
interrupting  the  channel  in  which  their  liberality  flowed 
with  so  strong  a  course ;  by  attempting  to  take,  instead  of 
being  satisfied  to  receive?  Sir  William  Temple  says  that 
Holland  has  loaded  itself  with  ten  times  the  impositions, 
which  it  revolted  from  Spain,  rather  than  submit  to.  [Sum- 
mary] He  says  true.  Tyranny  is  a  poor  provider.  It  knows 
neither  how  to  accumulate,  nor  how  to  extract. 

—  Burke  :  American  Taxation. 

A  series  of  short  sentences  produces  the  effect  of 
hurried  movement,  as  in  the  selection  just  below ;  a 
series  of  long  sentences  produces  the  effect  of  dignity, 
grace,  and  rhythmical  movement,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
selection  beginning  at  the  bottom  of  page  76. 

Loose,  Periodic,  Balanced  Sentences. 
38.   Whether  long  or  short,  a  sentence  may  be  balanced, 
periodic,  or  loose.      The  term  "  balanced  "  is  applied  to  sen- 
tences in  which  successive  parts  have  similarity  of  form. 


LOOSE,   PERIODIC,   BALANCED   SENTENCES.      131 

Thus:  "To  make  us  love  our  country,  our  country 
ought  to  be  lovely."  This  sentence  is  almost  mathe- 
matically divided.  When  whole  sentences  are  balanced 
against  one  another  and  similarity  of  form  is  maintained 
through  a  series,  we  have  what  is  called  parallel  con- 
struction. In  the  following,  sentence  1  is  a  balanced 
sentence;  sentences  2,  3,  and  4  are  in  parallel  construc- 
tion, as  are  also  sentences  7,  8,  9,  and  10. 

1.  The  clergyman  of  fashion  was  pale  and  fragile ;  he  of 
the  people  was  florid  and  muscular.  2.  He  had  no  attend- 
ant to  remove  his  hat  and  cloak.  3.  He  had  no  comfortable 
study  in  the  church  building  where  he  smoothed  his  hair 
and  arranged  his  cuffs.  4.  He  declaimed  before  no  full- 
length  mirror,  and  never  wore  a  pair  of  patent  leathers  in 
his  life.  5.  When  he  ascended  the  platform,  threading  his 
way  through  the  men  and  women  on  its  steps,  and  patting 
the  curly  hair  of  boys  perched  on  the  ledge,  he  slung  his 
soft  felt  hat  under  a  little  table,  put  one  leg  over  the  other 
while  he  removed  his  rubbers,  threw  back  his  cloak,  settled 
himself  in  his  chair,  and  gave  a  sigh  of  relief  as  he  drew  a 
restful  breath  after  his  quick  walk  from  home.  6.  In  other 
words,  he  was  a  man  bent  on  man's  duty.  7.  If  the  air 
seemed  close  he  said  so,  called  an  usher,  and  had  the  win- 
dows lowered.  8.  If  he  desired  a  special  tune  sung  to  the  hymn 
he  gave  out,  he  turned  to  the  director  and  told  him  so.  9.  If 
he  forgot  a  date  or  a  name,  he  asked  one  of  the  people  near 
him  what  it  was.  10.  If  strangers  sitting  close  to  the  platform 
were  unprovided  with  hymn-books,  he  leaned  forward  and 
handed  them  several  from  his  desk.  11.  As  he  said:  "I 
am  at  home ;  they  are  guests.  12.  What  is  proper  in  my 
house  is  eminently  proper  in  the  house  of  the  Lord ! " 

—  Jos.  Howard  :  Life  of  Beecher,  p.  158. 


132 


SENTENCES, 


It  is  evident  that  the  use  of  the  accurately  balanced 
sentence  is  justified  only  'when  there  is  a  real  contrast  of 
ideas  to  be  expressed.  Yet  it  is  true  that  every  sentence 
should  possess  in  a  measure  the  quality  of  balance,  or 
perhaps  we  should  say  the  quality  of  symmetry.  When 
Lowell  referred  to  the  danger  of  a  long  sentence  "  losing 
its  balance  "  (p.  128)  he  did  not  mean  that  every  sen- 
tence should  be  a  mathematically  balanced  sentence; 
he  referred  to  the  lack  of  symmetry  in  such  sentences 
as  those  in  the  first  column  below.  The  version  in  the 
second  column  restores  the  symmetry. 


Clara,  upon  hearing  the 
thunder-clap,  which  sounded 
like  the  crack  of  doom, 
jumped. 

There  are  twenty  members 
intending  to  practice  law  and 
who  ^  will  settle  in  New  York. 

He  was  a  man  of  strong 
mind  and  sterling  character, 
and  who^  had  many  friends. 

There  was  a  steaming 
kettle  on  the  hob,  a  clean 
bed,  and  plenty  of  fresh  air, 
which  was  pleasant. 


II. 

Upon  hearing  the  thunder- 
clap, which  sounded  like  the 
crack  of  doom,  Clara  jumped 
from  her  seat. 

There  are  twenty  members 
who  will  settle  in  New  York 
to  practice  law. 

He  was  a  man  of  strong 
mind  and  sterling  character. 
He  had  many  friends. 

There  was  a  steaming 
kettle  on  the  hob,  a  clean 
bed,  and  plenty  of  fresh  air. 
This  was  pleasant. 


A  sentence,  whether  long  or  short,  will  be  likely  to 
show  firmness  of  structure  and  certainty  of  direction,  if 

1  The  "  and  who  "  construction  should  not  be  used  unless  a  clause 
beginning  with  "who"  has  already  been  used  in  the  same  sentence. 
The  same  rule  governs  the  use  of  "  and  which." 


LOOSE,   PERIODIC,   BALANCED   SENTENCES,      133 

it  is  given  the  periodic  form,  that  is,  if  the  parts  are  so 
arranged  that  the  meaning  is  suspended  until  the  close. 
In  the  following  selection  every  sentence  is  periodic. 
This  is  unusual,  for  in  most  paragraphs  a  majority  of 
the  sentences  are  loose  in  structure.  The  effect  of  a 
series  of  periodic  sentences  is  to  give  an  air  of  formality 
and  dignity  to  the  paragraph.  This  is  not  fitting  when 
the  thoughts  are  commonplace.  In  the  following  the 
dignity  of  the  subject  justifies  the  exclusive  use  of 
periodic  sentences.  Notice  that  suspense  is  secured  in 
sentence  1  by  the,  use  of  comparative  words  (never, 
more,  than)  ;  in  2,  by  the  use  of  a  summarizing  word 
(such)  after  particulars  have  accumulated  by  means  of 
the  participles  (heating,  defending,  etc.) ;  in  3,  by 
putting  a  phrase  first  and  bringing  in  the  logical  sub- 
ject (qualification)  after  the  copula  (is) ;  in  4,  5,  and  6 
by  putting  a  phrase  first.  In  7,  the  demonstrative 
article  (a)  anticipates  the  clause  (when),  the  transitive 
verb  (discovered)  needs  an  object  (here  the  that-cVduse), 
and  the  object  clause  is  prolonged  by  the  use  of  a 
comparative  (inferior) ;  in  8,  the  word  it  anticipates 
all  that  follows  the  word  probable;  and  the  part  of 
sentence  8  after  the  word  probable  is  suspended  by  the 
device  used  in  sentence  3. 

1.  Never,  perhaps,  was  the  change  which  the  progress  of 
civilization  has  produced  in  the  art  of  war  more  strikingly 
illustrated  than  on  that  day.  2.  Ajax  beating  down  the 
Trojan  leader  with  a  rock  which  two  ordinary  men  could 
scarcely  lift,  Horatius  defending  the  bridge  against  an  army, 
Richard  the  Lion-hearted  spurring  along  the  whole  Saracen 
line  without  finding  an  enemy  to  withstand  his  assault, 
Robert  Bruce  crushing  with  one  blow  the  helmet  and  head 


134  SENTENCES. 

of  Sir  Henry  Bohun  in  sight  of  the  whole  array  of  England 
and  Scotland,  —  such  are  the  heroes  of  a  dark  age.  3.  In 
such  an  age,  bodily  vigor  is  the  most  indispensable  qualifi- 
cation of  a  warrior.  4.  At  Landen,  two  poor  sickly  beings 
who,  in  a  rude  state  of  society,  would  have  been  regarded  as 
too  puny  to  bear  any  part  in  combats,  were  the  souls  of  two 
great  armies.  5.  In  some  heathen  countries  they  would 
have  been  exposed  while  infants.  6.  In  Christendom  they 
would,  six  hundred  years  earlier,  have  been  sent  to  some 
quiet  cloister.  7.  But  their  lot  had  fallen  on  a  time  when 
men  had  discovered  that  the  strength  of  the  muscles  is  far 
inferior  in  value  to  the  strength  of  the  mind.  8.  It  is  prob- 
able that,  among  the  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  soldiers 
who  were  marshalled  round  Neerwinden  under  all  the  stand- 
ards of  Western  Europe,  the  two  feeblest  in  body  were  the 
hunchbacked  dwarf  who  urged  forward  the  fiery  onset  of 
France,  and  the  asthmatic  skeleton  who  covered  the  slow 
retreat  of  England. 

—  Mac AUL AY :  History  of  England,  Vol.  1,  chap.  xx. 

A  loose  sentence  is  one  'w^hich  may  be  broken  at  some 
point  before  the  end  and  up  to  that  point  be  grammatically 
a  complete  sentence.  A  sentence  of  this  type  is  in  dan- 
ger of  becoming  slovenly,  —  a  mere  string  of  clauses  and 
phrases,  —  unless  it  is  kept  well  in  hand.  Yet,  when 
the  clauses  and  phrases  are  well-placed,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing selection,  the  effect  of  loose  sentences  is  the  pleas- 
ing effect  of  conversation. 

1.  One  afternoon' we  visited  a  cave,  some  two  miles  down 
the  stream,  which  had  recently  been  discovered.  2.  We 
squeezed  and  wriggled  through  a  big  crack  or  cleft  in  the 
side  of  the  mountain  for  about  one  hundred  feet,  when  we 
emerged  into  a  large,  dome-shaped  passage,  the  abode,  dur- 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  PARTS.  135 

ing  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  of  innumerable  bats,  and  at 
all  times  of  primeval  darkness.  3.  There  were  various  other 
crannies  and  pit-holes  opening  into  it,  some  of  which  we 
explored.  4.  The  voice  of  running  water  was  everywhere 
heard,  betraying  the  proximity  of  the  little  stream  by  whose 
ceaseless  corroding  the  cave  and  its  entrance  had  been  worn. 
5.  This  streamlet  flowed  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  cave,  and 
came  from  a  lake  on  the  top  of  the  mountain ;  this  accounted 
for  its  warmth  to  the  hand,  which  surprised  us  all. 

—  BuRKouGHS  :    Wake- Robin  ;  Adirondack. 

Many  good  sentences,  perhaps  the  majority  of  good 
Tvritten  sentences,  are  composite  in  structure,  partly  loose 
and  partly  periodic.  When  the  phrases  and  clauses  to 
be  brought  in  are  numerous,  some  will  be  placed  early 
in  the  sentence,  making  it  periodic  for  a  time,  and  one 
or  more  will  be  left  to  the  end,  causing  the  sentence  to 
close  as  a  loose  sentence.  Thus  the  following  sentence 
is  periodic  up  to  the  dash,  the  added  thought  making  it 
loose. 

Poems  and  noble  extracts,  whether  of  verse  or  prose^  once 
reduced  into  possession,  and  rendered  truly  our  own,  may 
be  to  us  a  daily  pleasure ;  —  better  far  than  a  whole  library 
unused. 

The  important  thing  to  work  for  in  writing  a  sentence  is  not 
to  secure  one  form  rather  than  another,  but  to  secure  such  a 
placing  of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  that  the  exact  meaning 
cannot  be  misunderstood. 

Arrangement  of  Parts. 
39.    Sentences  are   flexible    in   the    making.     Their 
parts,  while  being  put   together,   can   be   turned   and 
adjusted  and  transposed  until  the  sentence  is  made  to 


136  SENTENCES. 

say  precisely  what  the  writer  intended,  no  more  and 
no  less.  Good  sentences  are  logical  and  immediately 
intelligible.  The  danger  besets  all  kinds  of  sentences 
of  placing  words  so  that  the  meaning  may^be  misunder- 
stood. Two  different  things  ought  to  be  meant  by  the 
two  sentences  in  each  pair  below  :  — 

1.  The  theory  is  now  ac- 
cepted with  confidence  in  the 
world  of  science. 

2.  At  first  she  continued 


regularly  to  feed  them,  not 
seeming  to  notice  that  they 
were  captives. 

3.  He  looked  back  with 
regret  upon  those  years 
which  he  had  spent  in  wan- 
dering. 


1.  In  the  world  of  science, 
the  theory  is  now  accepted 
with  confidence. 

2.  She  continued  regularly 
to  feed  them,  not  seeming  at 
first  to  notice  that  they  were 
captives. 

3.  He  looked  back  upon 
those  years  which  he  had 
spent  in  wandering  with  re- 
gret. 


The  following  sentences  show  the  correct  placing  of 
the  expressions  in  italics.  The  carets  show  the  points 
in  the  sentence  at  which  a  careless  writer  is  likely  to 
insert  the  italicized  expression. 

The  condition  of  the  poor  is  only  ameliorated  yy  by  the 
philanthropy  of  the  rich  {i.e.  no  lasting  reform  is  brought 
about). 

The  condition  of  the  poor  is  yy  ameliorated  only  by  the 
philanthropy  of  the  rich  (i.e.  there  is  no  other  ameliorating 
agency). 

Sir  Walter  Scott's  works  were  yy  exceedingly  popular  not 
only  with  his  countrymen,  hut  also  with  the  educated  classes 
in  every  other  civilized  country. 

They  yy  intend  y^  to  pass  not  only  another  high  tariff  bill, 
but  also  a  reciprocity  bill. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  PARTS. 


137 


He  y^  ought  at  least  to  /^  apologize  y^  for  his  conduct. 
He  was  now  compelled  to  defer  to  men /or  whose  opinions 
he  had  never  entertained  much  respect  y\. 

In  the  best  sentences  the  parts  are  so  placed  that  a 
person  reading  aloud  is  compelled  by  the  arrangement 
of  the  words  and  phrases  to  reproduce  by  his  voice  the 
distribution  of  emphasis  which  the  writer  had  in  mind. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  test  by  the  ear  what  one  has  writ- 
ten, and  to  rearrange  the  parts  of  sentences  so  that  the 
sentence  will  emphasize  itself. 

The  following  sentences  illustrate  how  the  emphasis 
of  a  phrase  or  a  clause  shifts  with  every  change  of 
position :  — 


1.  Provided  you  have 
plenty  of  good  ideas,  it  is 
not  very  hard  to  write. 

2.  The  hand  of  death  was 
upon  him ;  he  knew  it ;  and 
the  only  wish  which  he  ut- 
tered was  that  sword  in  hand 
he  might  die. 

3.  It  is  always  difficult  to 
separate  the  literary  charac- 
ter of  a  man  who  lives  in  our 
own  time  from  his  personal 
character.  It  is  peculiarly 
difficult  in  the  case  of  Lord 
Byron  to  make  this  separa- 
tion. 

4.  Believe  me,  nothing  ex- 
cept a  lost  battle  is  so  terrible 
as  a  ivon  battle. 


1.  It  is  not  very  hard  to 
write,  provided  you  have 
plenty  of  good  ideas. 

2.  The  hand  of  death  was 
upon  him ;  he  knew  it :  and 
the  only  wish  which  he  ut- 
tered was  that  he  might  die 
sword  in  hand. 

3.  It  is  always  difficult  to 
separate  the  literary  charac- 
ter of  a  man  who  lives  in  our 
own  time  from  his  personal 
character.  It  is  peculiarly 
difficult  to  make  this  separ 
ration  in  the  case  of  Lord 
Byron. 

4.  Believe  me,  nothing  ex- 
cept a  battle  lost  is  so  terrible 
as  a  battle  won. 


138  SENTENCES, 


5.  The  framers  of  the  con- 
stitution had  to  give  to  the 
government  a  permanent  and 
conservative  form. 

6.  Knowledge  is  the  indis- 
pensable condition  of  expan- 
sion of  mind,  and  the  instru- 
ment of  attaining  to  it. 


5.  The  framers  of  the  con- 
stitution had  to  give  to  the 
government  a  form  permanent 
and  conservative. 

6.  The  indispensable  con- 
dition of  expansion  of  mind, 
and  the  instrument  of  attain- 
ing to  it,  is  knowledge. 


Summary. 

I.  See  that  every  sentence  you  write  says  one  thing,  and  says 
what  you  want  it  to  say,  —  no  more,  no  less. 

2.  Use  short  sentences  for  abruptness  and  rapidity. 

3.  Use  long  sentences  for  dignity  and  grace. 

4.  Use  the  loose  sentence  for  its  easy  conversational  effect. 

5.  Use  the  periodic  sentence  for  its  firmness  and  dignity. 

40.  Assignments. 

A.  In  the  paragraph  from  Burroughs  (p.  15),  what  kinds  of 
sentence  are  used,  and  what  is  their  effect  respectively?  Change 
any  five  of  the  sentences  to  a  different  form,  and  note  the  resulting 
change  in  emphasis. 

B.  In  the  selection  from  Bryce  (p.  26),  underline  the  words 
that  you  are  compelled  to  emphasize  most  strongly,  as  you  read 
the  selection. 

C.  In  the  paragraph  from  Froude  (p.  48),  what  phrase  or 
clause  in  each  sentence  is  made  emphatic  by  position? 

D.  In  the  paragraph  from  Hosmer  (p.  46),  second  sentence, 
what  is  the  most  emphatic  word?  Change  the  position  of  the 
if-clause  and  note  the  change  in  emphasis. 

E.  In  the  paragraph  from  Carlyle  (p.  49),  explain  the  use  of  the 
colon  in  the  first  sentence  and  in  the  fourth.  Which  of  the  sen- 
tences are  completely  periodic? 


ASSIGNMENTS.  139 

F.  In  the  paragraph  from  Emerson  (p.  55),  what  use  of  the 
short  sentence  is  illustrated  ?     What  use  of  long  sentences  ? 

G.  In  the  paragraph  from  Macaulay  (p.  68),  what  use  of  the 
short  sentence  is  seen  ?     What  use  of  the  long  sentence  ? 

H.  In  the  paragraph  by  Longfellow  (p.  45),  what  use  is  sub- 
served by  the  long  sentences? 

I.  In  the  paragraph  by  Irving  (p.  47),  mark  the  words  of  con- 
nection. 

J.  In  the  paragraph  by  Lamb  (p.  54),  how  is  the  second  sen- 
tence kept  from  overlooseness  ?  What  does  the  sentence  structure 
tell  you  of  the  person  speaking  ? 

K.  Examine  the  sentences  of  your  last  essay.  Question  each 
sentence  in  order  to  see  whether  you  have  made  it  say  what  you 
wanted  it  to  say.  If  any  sentence  has  failed  to  do  your  bidding, 
remodel  it,  try  it  in  different  forms  with  the  words  and  phrases  in 
a  different  order.  Place  the  words  and  phrases  so  that  a  person 
reading  aloud  would  be  compelled  to  emphasize  the  important 
words  as  you  intended  they  should  be  emphasized. 

L.  The  following  from  William  Hubbard's  A  General  History 
of  New  England  from  the  Discovery  to  1680,  is  one  of  the  longest 
sentences  in  English  literature.  *lt  contains  556  words.  Break  it 
up  into  paragraphs,  and  retell  it  in  more  connected  style,  as  John 
Gallop  might  have  related  it  to  his  Connecticut  friends  upon  his 
return.    Modernize  any  old-fashioned  spelling  that  you  may  notice. 

One  John  Gallop,  with  one  man  more,  and  two  boys,  com- 
ing from  Connecticut,  and  intending  to  put  in  at  Long  Island, 
as  he  came  from  thence,  being  at  the  mouth  of  the  harbor, 
was  forced  by  a  sudden  change  of  the  wind  to  bear  up  for 
Block  Island,  or  Fisher's  Island,  where,  as  they  were  sailing 
along,  they  met  with  a  pinnace,  which  they  found  to  be  John 
Oldham's,  who  had  been  sent  to  trade  with  the  Pequods  (to 
make  trial  of  the  reality  of  their  pretended  friendship  after 
the  murder  of  Capt.  Stone) :  they  hailed  the  vessel,  but  had 


140  SENTENCES. 

no  answer,  although  they  saw  the  deck  full  of  Indians  (four- 
teen in  all),  and  a  little  before  that  had  seen  a  canoe  go  from 
the  vessel  full  of  Indians  likewise,  and  goods,  whereupon  they 
suspected  they  had  killed  John  Oldham,  who  had  only  two 
boys  and  two  Narrhaganset  Indians  in  his  vessel  besides 
himself,  and  the  rather  because  they  let  slip  and  set  up  sail 
(being  two  miles  from  the  shore,  the  wind  and  tide  coming 
off  the  shore  of  the  island,  whereby  they  drave  toward  the 
mainland  of  Narrhaganset) ;  therefore  they  went  ahead  of 
them,  and  having  nothing  but  two  pieces,  and  two  pistols, 
they  bore  up  near  the  Indians,  who  stood  on  the  deck  of  the 
vessel  ready  armed  with  guns,  swords,  and  pikes ;  but  John 
Gallop,  a  man  of  stout  courage,  let  fly  among  them  and  so 
galled  them  that  they  got  all  down  under  hatches,  and  then 
they  stood  off  again,  and  returning  with  a  good  gale,  th^ 
stemmed  her  upon  the  quarter,  and  almost  overset  her,, 
which  so  affrightened  the  Indians,  as  six  of  them  leaped  over- 
board, and  were  drowned,  yet  they  durst  not  board  her,  but 
stood  off  again,  and  fitted  their  anchor,  so  as  stemming  her 
the  second  time,  they  bored  her  bow  through  with  their 
anchor,  and  sticking  fast  to  her,  they  made  divers  shot 
through  the  sides  of  her,  and  so  raked  her  fore  and  aft 
(being  but  inch  board)  as  they  must  needs  kill  or  hurt  some 
of  the  Indians;  but  seeing  none  of  them  come  forth,  they 
got  loose  from  her,  and  then  stood  off  again :  then  four  or 
five  more  of  the  Indians  leaped  into  the  sea,  and  were  like- 
wise drowned ;  whereupon  there  being  but  four  left  in  her, 
they  boarded  her;  when  an  Indian  came  up  and  yielded; 
him  they  bound  and  put  into  the  hold :  then  another  yielded ; 
him  they  also  bound,  but  Gallop,  being  well  acquainted  with 
their  skill  to  unloose  one  another,  if  they  lay  near  together, 
and  having  no  place  to  keep  them  asunder,  flung  him  bound 
into  the  sea ;  then  looking  about  they  found  John  Oldham 
under  an  old  sail  stark  naked,  having  his  head  cleft  to  the 


MEANS   OF  CONNECTION.  141 

brains ;  his  hands  and  legs  cut  as  if  they  had  been  cutting 
them  off,  yet  warm;  so  they  put  him  into  the  sea;  but 
could  not  well  tell  how  to  come  at  the  other  two  Indians 
(who  were  in  a  little  room  underneath  with  their  swords), 
so  they  took  the  goods  which  were  left,  and  the  sails,  and 
towed  the  boat  away,  but  night  coming  on,  and  the  wind 
rising,  they  were  forced  to  turn  her  off,  and  the  wind  car- 
ried her  to  the  Narrhaganset  shore,  where  they  left  her. 

M.  The  following  examples  are  both  utterances  of  public  men.i 
Which  do  you  think  is  the  stronger? 

1.  Entertaining  unlimited  confidence  in  your  intelligent 
and  patriotic  devotion  to  the  public  interest,  and  being  con- 
scious of  no  motives  on  my  part  which  are  not  inseparable 
from  the  honor  and  advancement  of  my  country,  I  hope  it 
may  be  my  privilege  to  deserve  and  secure,  not  only  your 
cordial  cooperation  in  great  public  measures,  but  also  those 
relations  of  mutual  confidence  and  regard  which  it  is  always 
so  desirable  to  cultivate  between  members  of  coordinate 
branches  of  the  government. 

2.  I  do  not  think  I  am  fit  for  this  place.  But  my  friends 
say  I  am,  and  I  trust  them.  I  shall  take  the  place,  and, 
when  I  am  in  it,  I  shall  do  as  well  as  I  can. 

Try  restating  the  first  selection  in  the  terse  and  simple  style  of 
the  second. 

Means  of  Connection. 
41.    Between.the  sentences  of  a  paragraph,  as  between 
the  paragraphs  of  a  composition,  the  most  useful  means 
of  connection  is  a  logical  and  natural  order  of  ideas. 

1  From  Edward  Everett  Hale's  How  to  Do  It,  —  a  book  which 
every  high  school  student  should  read  through  once  a  year,  and  consult 
frequently  between  whiles. 


142  SENTENCES. 

When  it  is  necessary,  however,  to  make  the  connection 
definite  and  obvious,  a  variety  of  resources  are  at  the 
writer's  command.     He  may  for  this  purpose  use 

1.  Conjunctions,  adverbs,  and  adverbial  phrases, 

2.  Synonymous  expressions  and  pronouns, 

3.  The  echo. 

Most  often  connection  is  shown  by  the  use  of  con- 
junctions,   adverbs,    and    adverbial    phrases,   as    follows : 

(1)  Coordinate :  and^  also,  likewise,  again,  further, 
moreover,  so  too,  in  like  manner,  first,  secondly/,  lastly ; 

(2)  Adversative ;  hut,  however,  yet,  nevertheless,  still, 
otherwise ;  (3)  Alternative  :  or  and  nor,  either  and  or, 
neither  and  nor,  the  one  and  the  other ;  (4)  Illative : 
hence,  therefore,  thus,  accordingly;  (5)  Subordinating: 
if ,  for,  unless,  though;  (6)  Demonstrative:  this,  these, 
that,  those,  in  this  case,  under  those  circumstances.  The 
proper  use  of  such  words  and  phrases  makes  explicit 
and  unmistakable  the  reference  intended,  and  shows 
accurately  the  bearing  of  each  sentence  upon  what  pre- 
cedes and  what  follows.  The  following,  from  Cardinal 
Newman,  shows  a  considerable  number  of  these  words 
and  phrases  of  explicit  reference. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that,  because  I  so  speaJc,  therefore 
I  have  some  sort  of  fear  of  the  education  of  the  people ;  on 
the  contrary,  the  more  education  they  have,  the  better,  so  that 
it  is  really  education.  Nor  am  I  an  enemy  to  the  cheap 
publication  of  scientific  and  literary  works,  which  is  now  in 
vogue :  on  the  contrary,  I  consider  it  a  great  advantage,  con- 
venience, and  gain ;  that  is,  to  those  to  whom  education  has 
given  a  capacity  for  using  them.  Further,  I  consider  such 
innocent  recreations  as  science  and  literature  are  able  to 


MEANS   OF  CONNECTION.  143 

furnish  will  be  a  very  tit  occupation  of  the  thoughts  and 
the  leisure  of  young  persons,  and  may  be  made  the  means  of 
keeping  them  from  bad  employments  and  bad  companions. 
Moreover,  as  to  that  superficial  acquaintance  with  chemistry, 
and  geology,  and  astronomy,  and  political  economy,  and 
modern  history,  and  biography,  and  other  branches  of  knowl- 
edge, which  periodical  literature  and  occasional  lectures  and 
scientific  institutions  diffuse  through  the  community,  I  think 
it  a  graceful  accomplishment,  and  a  suitable,  nay,  in  this 
day  a  necessary  accomplishment,  in  the  case  of  educated 
men.  Nor,  lastly,  am  I  disparaging  or  discouraging  the 
thorough  acquisition  of  any  one  of  these  studies,  or  denying 
that,  as  far  as  it  goes,  such  thorough  acquisition  is  a  real 
education  of  the  mind.  All  I  say  is,  call  things  by  their 
right  names,  and  do  not  confuse  together  ideas  which  are 
essentially  different.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  one  science 
and  a  superficial  acquaintance  with  many,  are  not  the  same 
thing ;  a  smattering  of  a  hundred  things  or  a  memory  for 
detail,  is  not  a  philosophical  or  comprehensive  view.  Recrea- 
tions are  not  education  ;  accomplishments  are  not  education. 

Often  the  connection  is  made  clear  by  the  employment 
of  synonymous  expressions  and  the  careful  use  of  pronouns. 
In  the  following  paragraph,  for  example,  Webster,  de- 
siring to  keep  attention  fixed  upon  the  idea,  "  the  value 
of  learning,  especially  of  classical  learning,"  proceeds 
as  follows :  (1)  The  idea  of  learning  in  general  is  car- 
ried from  sentence  to  sentence  by  means  of  the  synony- 
mous expressions,  "  literature,"  "  learning,"  "  literature, 
ancient  as  well  as  modern,"  and  the  allied  expression 
"  learned  men  "  ;  (2)  the  idea  of  classical  learning  is 
similarly  carried  on  by  literal  repetition  of  the  words 
"  classical  learning,"  and  by  the  synonymous  expression 


144  SENTENCES. 

"scholarship,"  and  the  allied  expression  "scholars"; 
(3)  the  pronoun  "  it "  is  used  to  carry  on  now  one,  now 
the  other,  of  these  ideas.  In  the  illustration  the  first 
series  of  reference  words  is  put  in  small  capitals,  the 
second  in  italics,  and  the  word  "  it "  in  small  capitals, 
or  italics,  according  as  it  takes  the  place  of  the  first  or 
of  the  second. 

Literature  sometimes  disgusts,  and  pretension  to  it 
much  oftener  disgusts,  by  appearing  to  hang  loosely  on  the 
character,  like  something  foreign  or  extraneous,  not  a  part, 
but  an  ill-adjusted  appendage ;  or  by  seeming  to  overload 
and  weigh  it  down  by  its  unsightly  bulk,  like  the  productions 
of  bad  taste  in  architecture,  where  there  is  massy  and  cum- 
brous ornament  without  strength  or  solidity  of  column.  This 
has  exposed  learning,  and  especially  classical  learning,  to 
reproach.  Men  have  seen  that  it  might  exist  without  mental 
superiority,  without  vigor,  without  good  taste,  and  without 
utility.  But  in  such  cases  classical  learning  has  only  not 
inspired  natural  talent ;  or,  at  most,  it  has  but  made  original 
feebleness  of  intellect  and  natural  bluntness  of  perception, 
something  more  conspicuous.  The  question,  after  all,  if  it 
be  a  question,  is,  whether  literature,  ancient  as  well 
AS  modern,  does  not  assist  a  good  understanding,  improve 
natural  good  taste,  add  polished  armor  to  native  strength, 
and  render  its  possessor,  not  only  more  capable  of  deriving 
private  happiness  from  contemplation  and  reflection,  but 
more  accomplished  also  for  action  in  the  affairs  of  life,  and 
especially  for  public  action.  Those  whose  memories  we  now 
honor  were  learned  men  ;  but  their  learning  was  kept  in 
its  proper  place,  and  made  subservient  to  the  uses  and  ob- 
jects of  life.  They  were  scholars^  not  common  or  superficial ; 
but  their  scholarship  was  so  in  keeping  with  their  character, 
so  blended  and  inwrought,  that  careless  observers,  or  bad 


MEANS  OF  CONNECTION. 


145 


judges,  not  seeing  an  ostentatious  display  of  it,  might  infer 
that  it  did  not  exist ;  forgetting,  or  not  knowing,  that  classi- 
cal learning  in  men  who  act  in  conspicuous  public  stations, 
perform  duties  which  exercise  the  faculty  of  writing,  or  ad- 
dress popular,  deliberative,  or  judicial  bodies,  is  often  felt 
where  it  is  little  seen,  and  sometimes  felt  more  effectually  be- 
cause it  is  not  seen  at  all. 

—  Webster  :  Adams  and  Jefferson. 

The  connection  of  one  sentence  with  the  next  may 
be  made  clear  and  emphatic  by  means  of  the  echo,  that 
is,  by  the  repetition  of  an  important  -word  from  the  first 
sentence  at  or  near  the  beginning  of  the  second.  The 
effort  of  a  writer  to  avail  himself  of  this  admirable  means 
of  connection  sometimes  results  in  a  commendable  in- 
version of  the  usual  order  of  words  in  a  sentence. 
Compare  the  following,  noticing  the  closer  connection 
secured  by  the  use  of  the  echo  in  the  column  at  the 
right ;  also  noticing  the  inverted  order  of  words  in  the 
last  sentence. 


The  old  Greek  citizen 
founded  cities  in  his  settle- 
ments beyond  the  sea,  cities 
free  and  independent  from 
the  beginning.  Let  us  now 
see  what  has  been  founded  by 
the  modern  European  colo- 
nist, subject  of  a  kingdom. 
He  has  founded  settlements 
of  various  kinds  in  different 
cases;  but  he  has  nowhere 
founded  cities  free  and  inde- 
pendent like  the  Greek  and 


The  old  Greek  citizen,  in 
his  settlements  beyond  the 
sea,  founded  cities,  cities  free 
and  independent  from  the 
beginning.  Let  us  now  see 
what  the  modern  European 
colonist,  subject  of  a  kingdom, 
has  founded.  He  has  founded 
settlements  of  various  kinds 
in  different  cases ;  but  he  has 
nowhere  founded  free  and  in- 
dependent citieslike  the  Greek 
and  Phoenician   before   him. 


146 


SENTENCES, 


Phoenician  before  him.  He 
has  indeed  founded  cities  in 
one  sense,  vast  and  mighty- 
cities,  busy  seats  of  art  and  in- 
dustry and  commerce,  but  not 
cities  in  the  elder  sense,  cities 
independent  from  their  birth, 
cities  that  are  born  the  politi- 
cal equals  of  the  mightiest 
kingdoms. 


Cities  indeed  in  one  sense  he 
has  founded,  vast  and  mighty 
cities,  busy  seats  of  art  and 
industry  and  commerce,  but 
not  cities  in  the  elder  sense, 
cities  independent  from  their 
birth,  cities  that  are  born  the 
political  equals  of  the  mighti- 
est kingdoms.  —  Freeman. 


Make  clear  the  connection  between  sentences,  first,  by  a  logical 
order  of  ideas,  second,  by  the  use  of  reference-words  and  repeti- 
tions. 

42.  Assignments  on  Means  of  Connecting  Sentences. 

A.  In  the  first  part  of  the  paragraph  from  Macaulay,  p.  133,  the 
echo  is  used.     Find  it. 

B.  In.  the  paragraph  from  Ivanhoe,  p.  101,  the  words  "  still,  how- 
ever "  put  what  two  things  in  adversative  relation  ? 

C.  In  the  selection  from  Maundeville,  p.  7,  how  many  "  and's  ** 
should  be  dropped,  according  to  modern  standards  ? 

D.  In  the  selection  from  Bryce,  p.  26,  what  transitions  are 
there? 

E.  In  the  paragraph  from  Macaulay,  p.  73,  what  words  and 
phrases  of  connection  are  used  ? 

F.  In  the  selection  from  Holmes,  p.  55,  what  demonstrative 
pronouns  are  employed? 

G.  In  the  paragraph  by  McMaster,  p.  106,  mark  all  the  words 
that  refer  back  to  or  stand  for  "  schoolmaster." 

H.  Bring  to  class  some  good  paragraphs  you  have  found  in  your 
reading,  and  point  out  the  connection. 

I.  Study  the  connectives  in  the  following  paragraphs.  Be  pre- 
pared to  point  them  out  and  to  explain  the  relationships  which 
they  express. 


MEANS   OF  CONNECTING   SENTENCES.  147 

The  principle  of  copyright  is  this.  It  is  a  tax  on  readers 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  bounty  to  writers.  The  tax  is  an 
exceedingly  bad  one ;  it  is  a  .tax  on  one  of  the  most  innocent 
and  most  salutary  of  human  pleasures ;  and  never  let  us  for- 
get, that  a  tax  on  innocent  pleasures  is  a  premium  on  vicious 
pleasures.  I  admit,  however,  the  necessity  of  giving  a 
bounty  to  genius  and  learning.  In  order  to  give  such  a 
bounty,  I  willingly  submit  even  to  this  severe  and  burden- 
some tax.  Nay,  I  am  ready  to  increase  the  tax,  if  it  can  be 
shown  that  by  so  doing  I  should  proportionally  increase  the 
bounty.  My  complaint  is,  that  my  honorable  and  learned 
friend  doubles,  triples,  quadruples,  the  tax,  and  makes 
scarcely  any  perceptible  addition  to  the  bounty.  Why,  Sir, 
what  is  the  additional  amount  of  taxation  which  would  have 
been  levied  on  the  public  for  Dr.  Johnson's  works  alone,  if 
my  honorable  and  learned  friend's  bill  had  been  the  law  of 
the  land  ?  1  have  not  data  sufficient  to  form  an  opinion. 
But  I  am  confident,  that  the  taxation  on  his  dictionary  alone 
would  have  amounted  to  many  thousands,  of  pounds.  In 
reckoning  the  whole  additional  sum  which  the  holders  of  his 
copyrights  would  have  taken  out  of  the  pockets  of  the  public 
during  the  last  half  century  at  twenty  thousand  pounds,  I 
feel  satisfied  that  I  very  greatly  underrate  it.  Now,  I  again 
say  that  I  think  it  but  fair  that  we  should  pay  twenty  thou- 
sand pounds  in  consideration  of  twenty  thousand  pounds' 
worth  of  pleasure  and  encouragement  received  by  Dr.  John- 
son. But  I  think  it  very  hard  that  we  should  pay  twenty 
thousand  pounds  for  what  he  would  not  have  valued  at  five 
shillings.  —  Maoaulay  :  Speech  on  Copynght. 

Of  course.  Sir,  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  a  man  will  not 
produce  more  in  a  week  by  working  seven  days  than  by 
working  six  days.  But  I  very  much  doubt  whether,  at  the 
end  of  a  year,  he  will  generally  have  produced  more  by 


148  SENTENCES, 

working  seven  days  a  week  than  by  working  six  days  a 
week ;  and  I  firmly  believe  that,  at  the  end  of  twenty  years, 
he  will  have  produced  much  less  by  working  seven  days  a 
week  than  by  working  six  days  a  week.  In  the  same  man- 
ner I  do  not  deny  that  a  factory  child  will  produce  more,  in 
a  single  day,  by  working  twelve  hours  than  by  working  ten 
hours,  and  by  working  fifteen  hours  than  by  working  twelve 
hours.  But  I  do  deny  that  a  great  society  in  which  chil- 
dren work  fifteen,  or  even  twelve  hours  a  day  will,  in  the 
lifetime  of  a  generation,  produce  as  much  as  if  those  chil- 
dren had  worked  less.  If  we  consider  man  merely  in  a  com- 
mercial point  of  view,  if  we  consider  him  merely  as  a 
machine  for  the  production  of  worsted  and  calico,  let  us  not 
forget  what  a  piece  of  mechanism  he  is,  how  fearfully  and 
wonderfully  made.  We  do  not  treat  a  fine  horse  or  a  sa- 
gacious dog  exactly  as  we  treat  a  spinning  jenny.  Nor  will 
any  slaveholder,  who  has  sense  enough  to  know  his  own 
interest,  treat  his  human  chattels  exactly  as  he  treats  his 
horses  and  his  dogs.  And  would  you  treat  the  free  laborer 
of  England  like  a  mere  wheel  or  pulley  ?  Rely  on  it  that 
intense  labor,  beginning  too  early  in  life,  continued  too 
long  every  day,  stunting  the  growth  of  the  body,  stunting 
the  growth  of  the  mind,  leaving  no  time  for  healthful  exer- 
cise, leaving  no  time  for  intellectual  culture,  must  impair 
all  those  high  qualities  which  have  made  our  country  great. 
Your  overworked  boys  will  become  a  feeble  and  ignoble  race 
of  men,  the  parents  of  a  more  feeble  and  more  ignoble 
progeny  ;  nor  will  it  be  long  before  the  deterioration  of  the 
laborer  will  injuriously  affect  those  very  interests  to  which 
his  physical  and  moral  energies  have  been  sacrificed.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  day  of  rest  recurring  in  every  week,  two 
or  three  hours  of  leisure,  exercise,  innocent  amusement 
or  useful  study,  recurring  every  day,,  must  improve  the 
whole  man,  physically,  morally,  intellectually ;  and  the  im- 


MEANS   OF  CONNECTING   SENTENCES.  149 

provement  of  the  man  will  improve  all  that  the  man  pro- 
duces. Why  is  it,  Sir,  that  the  Hindoo  cotton  manufac- 
turer, close  to  whose  door  the  cotton  grows,  cannot,  in  a 
bazaar  of  his  own  town,  maintain  a  competition  with  the 
English  cotton  manufacturer,  who  has  to  send  thousands  of 
miles  for  the  raw  material,  and  who  has  then  to  send  the 
wrought  material  thousands  of  miles  to  market  ?  You  will 
say  that  it  is  owing  to  the  excellence  of  our  machinery. 
And  to  what  is  the  excellence  of  our  machinery  owing? 
How  many  of  the  improvements  which  have  been  made  in 
our  machinery  do  we  owe  to  the  ingenuity  and  patient 
thought  of  working  men  ?  Adam  Smith  tells  us  in  the  first 
chapter  of  his  great  work,  that  you  can  hardly  go  to  a  fac- 
tory without  seeing  some  very  pretty  machine,  —  that  is  his 
expression,  —  devised  by  some  laboring  man.  Hargreaves, 
the  inventor  of  the  spinning  jenny,  was  a  common  artisan. 
Crompton,  the  inventor  of  the  mule  jenny,  was  a  working 
man.  How  many  hours  of  the  labor  of  children  would  do 
so  much  for  our  manufactures  as  one  of  these  improvements 
has  done  ?  And  in  what  sort  of  society  are  such  improve- 
ments most  likely  to  be  made?  Surely  in  a  society  in 
which  the  faculties  of  the  working  people  are  developed  by 
education.  How  long  will  you  wait  before  any  negro,  work- 
ing under  the  lash  in  Louisiana,  will  contrive  a  better  ma- 
chinery for  squeezing  the  sugar  canes  ?  My  honorable 
friend  seems  to  me,  in  all  his  reasonings  about  the  commer- 
cial prosperity  of  nations,  to  overlook  entirely  the  chief 
cause  on  which  that  prosperity  depends.  What  is  it,  Sir, 
that  makes  the  great  difference  between  country  and  coun- 
try ?  Not  the  exuberance  of  soil ;  not  the  mildness  of 
climate;  not  mines,  nor  havens,  nor  rivers.  These  things 
are  indeed  valuable  when  put  to  their  proper  uses  by  human 
intelligence :  but  human  intelligence  can  do  much  without 
them ;  and  they  without  human  intelligence  can  do  nothing. 


150  SENTENCES. 

They  exist  in  the  highest  degree  in  regions  of  which  the 
inhabitants  are  few,  and  squalid,  and  barbarous,  and  naked, 
and  starving ;  while  on  sterile  rocks,  amidst  unwholesome 
marshes,  and  under  inclement  skies,  may  be  found  immense 
populations,  well  fed,  well  lodged,  well  clad,  well  governed. 
Nature  meant  Egypt  and  Sicily  to  be  gardens  of  the  world. 
They  once  were  so.  Is  it  anything  in  the  earth  or  the  air 
that  makes  Scotland  more  prosperous  than  Egypt,  that 
makes  Holland  more  prosperous  than  Sicily?  No;  it  was 
the  Scotchman  that  made  Scotland;  it  was  the  Dutchman 
that  made  Holland.  Look  at  North  America.  Two  cen- 
turies agosthe  sites  on  which  now  arise  mills,  and  hotels, 
and  banks, .  and  colleges,  and  churches,  and  the  Senate 
Houses,  of  flourishing  commonwealths,  were  deserts  aban- 
doned to  the  panther  and  the  bear.  What  has  made  the 
change  ?  Was  it  the  rich  mold,  or  the  redundant  rivers  ? 
No ;  the  prairies  were  as  fertile,  the  Ohio  and  the  Hudson 
were  as  broad  and  as  full  then  as  now.  Was  the  improve- 
ment the  effect  of  some  great  transfer  of  capital  from  the  old 
world  to  the  new  ?  No ;  the  emigrants  generally  carried 
out  with  them  no  more  than  a  pittance ;  but  they  carried 
out  the  English  heart,  and  head,  and  arm ;  and  the  English 
heart  and  head  and  arm  turned  the  wilderness  into  cornfield 
and  orchard,  and  the  huge  trees  of  the  primeval  forest  into 
cities  and  fleets.  Man,  man  is  the  great  instrument  that 
produces  wealth.  The  natural  difference  between  Cam- 
pania and  Spitzbergen  is  trifling,  when  compared  with  the 
difference  between  a  country  inhabited  by  men  of  bodily 
and  mental  vigor,  and  a  country  inhabited  by  men  sunk  in 
bodily  and  mental  decrepitude.  Therefore  it  is  that  we  are 
not  poorer  but  richer,  because  we  have,  through  many  ages, 
rested  from  our  labor  one  day  in  seven.  That  is  not  lost. 
While  industry  is  suspended,  while  the  plow  lies  in  the  fur- 
row, while  the  Exchange  is  silent,  while  no  smoke  ascends 


MEANS  OF  CONNECTING   SENTENCES.  151 

from  the  factory,  a  process  is  going  on  quite  as  important 
to  the  wealth  of  nations  as  any  process  which  is  performed 
on  more  busy  days.  Man,  the  machine  of  machines,  the 
machine  compared  with  which  all  the  contrivances  of  the 
Watts  and  the  Arkwrights  are  worthless,  is  repairing  and 
winding  up,  so  that  he  returns  to  his  labors  on  the  Monday 
with  clearer  intellect,  with  livelier  spirits,  with  renewed 
corporeal  vigor.  Never  will  I  believe  that  what  makes  a 
population  stronger,  and  healthier,  and  wiser,  and  better, 
can  ultimately  make  it  poorer.  You  try  to  frighten  us  by 
telling  us  that  in  some  German  factories,  the  young  work 
seventeen  hours  in  the  twenty-four,  that  they  work  so  hard 
that  among  thousands  there  is  not  one  who  grows  to  such  a 
stature  that  he  can  be  admitted  into  the  army ;  and  you  ask 
whether,  if  we  pass  this  bill,  we  can  possibly  hold  our  own 
against  such  competition  as  this  ?  Sir,  I  laugh  at  the 
thought  of  such  competition.  If  ever  we  are  forced  to  yield 
the  foremost  place  among  commercial  nations,  we  shall  yield' 
it,  not  to  a  race  of  degenerate  dwarfs,  but  to  some  people  pre- 
eminently vigorous  in  body  and  in  mind. 

—  Macaulay  :  /Speech  on  the  Ten  Hours  Bill. 


CHAPTER  V. 

WORDS. 

Choice  of  Expression. 

43.  The  English  language  has  a  much  larger  stock 
of  words  than  any  other  language  ever  used  by  man. 
Often  a  given  idea  will  be  represented  quite  accurately 
in  English  by  either  of  two  words  ;  sometimes  by  any 
one  of  three.  Thus  we  speak  of  a  certain  class  of  our 
population  as  the  poor^  the  needy ^  the  indigent^  meaning 
the  same  thing  no  matter  which  one  of  the  three  words 
we  use  ;  we  speak  of  a  laboring  man's  pay^  wages^  earn- 
ings ;  of  the  meaning^  sense^  signification  of  a  passage 
of  Scripture  ;  of  a  fitting^  proper,  appropriate  exercise  ; 
something  hinders,  delays,  retards  us  ;  we  become  tired, 
weary,  fatigued.  One  needs  a  stock  of  equivalent  words 
of  this  kind  for  the  sake  of  variety. 

Other  sets  of  words  in  English  represent  the  same 
idea,  but  with  different  degrees  of  intensity.  Thus 
empty,  vain,  futile  hopes  ;  sameness,  uniformity,  monotony; 
an  unwise,  inconsiderate,  silly,  foolish,  absurd,  ridiculous 
statement;  to  like,  admire,  love  ;  wealth,  riches,  opulence  ; 
to  discountenance,  deprecate,  deplore,  lament,  bewail  an 
act ;  vexed,  provoked,  indignant,  angry ;  it  is  not  im- 
possible, it  is  possible,  it  is  not  unlikely,  it  is  likely,  it  is 
not  improbable,  it  is  probable,  it  is  certain.     We  need 

152 


HOW   TO  ENLARGE   YOUR    VOCABULARY.       153 

to  learn  to  distinguish  degrees  of  meaning  in  words,  so 
as  not  to  overstate  or  understate  ourselves.  When  a 
familiar  word  does  not  quite  satisfy  us,  does  not  ade- 
quately or  exactly  express  our  meaning,  we  may  be  sure 
that  there  is  another  more  fitting ;  and  here  a  book  of 
synonyms  or  the  dictionary  will  help  us. 

Other  sets  of  words  represent  the  same  idea  in  differ- 
ent applications.  Thus  while  the  words  forgive^  pardon^ 
condone,  excuse,  acquit,  absolve,  remit,  overlook,  pass  over, 
represent  the  same  idea,  each  has  its  particular  applica- 
tion, as  will  be  seen  by  consulting  the  dictionary.  So 
with  house,  residence,  habitation,  mansion  ;  wages,  salary, 
fee,  stipend  ;  fright,  scare,  panic  ;  dread,  dismay,  conster- 
nation ;  guess,  think,  suppose;  meeting,  assembly,  audi- 
ence, congregation ;  choose,  prefer^  select ;  hanged,  hung  ; 
allude,  refer;  healthy,  healthful,  wholesome;  less,  fewer; 
two,  a  couple,  a  pair ;  company,  gathering,  crew,  gang, 
band,  party  ;  avow,  acknowledge,  confess;  only,  alone. 

How  to  enlarge  your  Vocabulary. 

44.  One  may  enlarge  one's  stock  of  words  by  looking 
up  the  new  words  one  reads,  by  trying  to  think  of  equiv- 
alent expressions  for  them,  and  by  recalling  and  using 
them  as  they  may  be  needed  in  one's  own  writing  and 
speaking.  We  should  try  to  make  use  of  all  of  our  lan- 
guage resources;  but  it  should  be  with  a  knowledge  of 
the  meaning,  applications,  and  implications  of  the  words 
we  use. 

Some  words  have  formed  close  associations  with  other 
words.  Thus,  take  steps,  contract  habits,  pursue  a  course, 
turn  to  account,  bear  malice,  pass  over  in  silence,  win 


154  WORDS, 

prizes.  This  is  especially  true  of  words  used  in  connec- 
tion with  prepositions  :  agree  with  a  person,  agree  to  a 
proposition,  differ /rom,  comply  with^  confide  in  a  friend, 
confide  a  secret  to  a  friend,  call  on,  dissent  from,  free 
from,  adapted  to  a  thing,  adapted /or  a  purpose,  die  of  a 
disease,  die  bi/  one's  own  hand,  regard  for  a  person,  in 
regard  to  this,  reconcile  to.  Some  words  call  impera- 
tively for  others  :  as  —  so,  either  —  or,  neither  —  nor, 
hardly  —  when,  the  same  that  I  saw,  the  same  as  before, 
such  —  as,  I  do  not  know  that  I  will,  different  from, 
other  than. 

Sometimes  the  choice  lies  between  an  idiomatic  and  a 
bookish,  or  between  a  simple  and  a  pretentious,  expres- 
sion I  here  the  idiomatic  or  simple  expression  is  prefer- 
able. Get  used  to  (for  become  accustomed  to),  go  to 
pieces  (for  collapse),  get  out  of  the  way  of  (for  avoid), 
get  up  (for  rise),  go  to  bed  (for  retire),  make  money  (for 
acquire  wealth),  burn  up  (for  be  consumed),  —  these  ex- 
pressions are  not  to  be  avoided. 

Again,  the  choice  may  lie  between  a  slang  expression 
which  rises  to  the  lips  only  too  readily,  and  a  standard 
expression  which  requires  some  effort  to  recall.  Here 
the  choice  should  fall  upon  the  standard  expression;  the 
effort  is  well  spent  in  calling  it  to  mind.  Besides  be- 
ing, in  many  cases,  vulgar  in  meaning  or  in  implication, 
slang  begets  general  carelessness  in  the  use  of  language. 
It  encourages  laziness  in  the  user  by  saving  him  the 
trouble  of  finding  exact  words  for  his  meaning. 
It  prevents  him  from  increasing  his  stock  of  good 
words. 

Especial  care  is  needed  in  the  choice  of  the  words 
will  and  shall,  would  and  should,  who,  which,  and  that. 


WILL  AND   SHALL.  155 


Will  and  Shall. 


45.  In  the  simple  future,  shall  is  used  in  the  first  per- 
son, and  will  in  the  second  and  third  persons  ;  thus,  "  I, 
or  we,  shall  enjoy  reading  the  book,"  and  "  You,  he,  or 
they,  will  enjoy  reading  the  book."  In  sentences  ex- 
pressing determination,  will  is  used  in  the  first  person, 
and  shall  in  the  second  and  third  persons;  thus,  "I,  or 
we,  will  obey,"  and  "You,  he,  or  they,  shall  obey." 

In  questions,  the  same  distinction  between  shall  and 
will  as  expressing  simple  futurity  or  determination  is 
seen  in  the  following  :  "  Shall  I,  or  we  ?  "  (simple  fu- 
ture, or  equivalent  to  "do  you  wish  me,  or  us,  to?"); 
"  Will  I  ?  "  (ironical)  ;  "  Shall  you  subscribe  ?  "  (mere 
information  desired)  ;  "Will  you  subscribe?  "  (I  want 
you  to)  ;  "Shall  he,  or  they?"  (Do  you  wish  him,  or 
them,  to?)  ;  "Will  he  or  they?"  (mere  information 
desired). 

In  secondary  clauses  the  reporter  uses  will^  if  the 
speaker  used  or  would  have  used  will ;  shall  if  the 
speaker  used  or  would  have  used  shall.  Thus  :  Speaker, 
—  "I  shall  enjoy  reading  the  book  "  ;  Reporter, —  "  He 
says  he  shall  enjoy  reading  the  book  "  ;  Speaker,  —  "I 
will  not  allow  it  "  ;  Reporter,  —  "  He  says  he  will  not 
allow  it "  ;  Speaker,  —  "  You  (or  they)  shall  seek  in 
vain  for  it ;  Reporter,  —  "  He  says  you  (or  they)  shall 
seek,"  etc. 

Should  corresponds  to  shall^  and  would  to  will,  follow- 
ing corresponding  rules.  Thus,  in  reporting  the  sen- 
tences just  given,  the  correct  form  would  be,  "  He  said 
he  should  enjoy  reading  the  book,"  "  He  said  he  would 
not  allow  it,"  "  He  said  you  (or  they)  should  seek  in 


156  WORDS, 

vain  for  it."     In  conditional  clauses  exceptional  care  is 
needed,  though  the  same  distinctions  are  maintained. 

Who,  Which,  That. 

46.  The  relative  pronoun  that  is  restrictive,  and  in- 
troduces a  clause  that  closely  defines,  limits,  or  qualifies 
the  antecedent.  A  ^A^^^-clause  affects  the  antecedent  as 
an  adjective  would  affect  the  antecedent.  Who  and 
which  are  coordinating  relatives,  and  introduce,  not  a 
modifying  thought,  but  an  additional  thought  of  equal 
or  greater  importance.  Who  is  equivalent  to  a  con- 
junction plus  a  personal  pronoun,  and  may  be  translated 
by  the  words  and  he,  and  they,  though  he,  though  they,  for 
he,  since  they,  etc.,  which  words  may  often  be  used,  with 
a  gain  to  clearness,  instead  of  who.  Which  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  conjunction  plus  the  word  it,  this,  these,  those, 
and  may  be  translated  by  the  words  and  this,  and  it,  and 
these,  a  fact  that,  a  circumstance  that,  etc.,  which  words 
may  often  be  used,  with  a  gain  to  clearness,  instead  of 
which.  Who  and  which  are  sometimes  used  restrictively, 
without  loss  of  clearness,  instead  of  the  strictly  correct 
that  when  the  use  of  that  would  make  a  harsh  combina- 
tion, when  the  word  that  has  already  been  used  in  an- 
other function  in  the  same  sentence,  and  when  the  use 
of  that  would  throw  a  preposition  to  the  end  of  the 
sentence. 

The  aid  of  punctuation  may  be  called  in  to  distinguish 
restrictive  from  coordinative  who  or  which.  Since  a 
comma  is  usually  inserted  before  a  coordinate  relative, 
the  omission  of  punctuation  before  who  or  which  will 
give  to  the  clause  a  restrictive  force. 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  157 

Sumraary. 

1 .  Choose  words  that  fit  your  meaning  with  exactness. 

2.  Distinguish  degrees  of  intensity  in  words. 

3.  Use  idiomatic  expressions. 

4.  Avoid  slang. 

47.  Assignments  on  Choice  of  Words. 

A.  In  the  following  choose  the  word  in  brac^cets  that  best  fits 
the  context.  Be  ready  to  give  reasons.  Consult  the  dictionary  or 
a  book  of  synonyms. 

1.  It  is  a  necessary  condition  of  life  that  has  desires  at 
all  that  these  desires  should  be  toward  life  and  not  away 
from  it ;  seeing  how  cheap  and  easy  a  thing  is  destruction 
on  all  hands,  and  how  hard  it  is  for  race  or  unit  to  hold  fast 
in  the  great  struggle  for  existence.  Surely  our  way  is  paved 
with  the  bones  of  those  who  have  loved  life  and  movement 
too  little,  and  lost  it  before  their  time.  If  we  could  think 
of  death  without  shrinking,  it  would  only  mean  that  this 
world  was  no  place  for  us,  and  that  we  should  \^Jiasten,  make 
haste,  hurry']  to  be  gone  to  leave  room  for  our  betters.  And 
therefore  the  law  of  action  which  would  put  death  out  of 
sight  is  to  be  accounted  good,  as  a  holy  and  healthy  thing 
(one  word  whose  meanings  have  become  unduly  severed), 
necessary  to  the  life  of  men,  serving  to  [^hold,  bind,  knit, 
keep,  draw,  pull,  join']  them  together  and  to  advance  them 
in  the  right.  Not  only  is  it  right  and  good  thus  to  cover 
over  and  dismiss  the  thought  of  our  own  personal  end,  to 
keep  in  mind  and  heart  always  the  good  things  that  [shall, 
ivill]  be  done,  rather  than  ourselves  who  [shall,  will]  or 
[shall,  will]  not  have  the  doing  of  them;  but  also  to  our 
friends  and  loved  ones  we  [shall,  will]  give  the  most  worthy 
honor  and  tribute  if  we  never  say  nor  remember  that  they 
are  dead,  but  contrariwise  that  they  have  lived;  that  here- 


158  *  WORDS, 

by  the  brotherly  force  and  flow  of  their  action  and  work 
may  be  carried  over  the  gulfs  of  death  and  made  [^everlast- 
ing,  immortal,  eternal,  endless,  immutable,  perpetual^  in  the 
true  and  healthy  life  which  they  worthily  had  and  used. 

2.  Sir  Thomas  Payton  came  to  me  and  told  me  my  lord 
[would,  should']  fight  with  me  on  horseback  with  single 
sword ;  and,  said  he,  "  I  [will,  shall]  be  his  second ;  where 
is  yours  ?  "  I  replied  that  neither  his  lordship  nor  myself 
brought  over  any  great  horses  with  us ;  that  I  knew  he 
might  much  better  borrow  one  than  myself;  howbeit,  as 
soon  as  he  showed  me  the  place,  he  [would,  should]  find 
me  there  on  horseback  or  on  foot;  whereupon  both  of  us 
riding  together  upon  two  geldiiigs  to  the  side  of  a  wood, 
Payton  said  he  chose  that  place,  and  the  time,  break  of  day 
the  next  morning.  I  told  him  I  [would,  should]  fail  neither 
place  nor  time,  though  I  knew  not  where  to  get  a  better 
nag  than  the  horse  I  rode  on  ;  "  and  as  for  a  second,  I  [will, 
shall]  trust  to  your  nobleness,  who,  I  know,  [will,  shall]  see 
fair  play  betwixt  us,  though  you  come  on  his  side."  .  .  . 

The  lieutenant,  though  he  did  not  know  me,  suspected  I 
had  some  private  quarrel,  and  that  I  desired  this  horse  to 
fight  on,  and  thereupon  told  me,  "  Sir,  whosoever  you  are, 
you  seem  to  be  a  person  of  worth,  and  you  [will,  shall]  have 
the  best  horse  in  the  stable ;  and  if  you  have  a  quarrel  and 
want  a  second,  I  offer  myself  to  serve  you  upon  another 
horse,  and  if  you  [will,  shall]  let  me  go  along  with  you  upon 
these  terms,  I  [will,  shall]  ask  no  pawn  of  you  for  the 
horse."  I  told  him  I  [luould,  should]  use  no  second,  and 
I  desired  him  to  accept  one  hundred  pieces,  which  I  had 
then  about  me,  in  pawn  for  the  horse,  and  he  [woidd,  should] 
hear  from  me  shortly  again ;  and  that  though  1  did  not  take 
his  noble  offer  of  coming  along  with  me,  I  [would,  should] 
evermore  rest  much  obliged  to  him  :  whereupon  giving  him 


CHOICE  OF   WORDS.  159 

my  purse  with  the  money  in  it,  I  got  upon  his  horse,  and 
left  my  nag  besides  with  him.  —  Lord  Chekbury. 

3.  The  Castello  di  San  Giorgio,  or,  as  it  [^should,  might,  could, 
would]  more  properly  have  been  [^designated,  called,  named], 
the  ^'Casa''  or  villa  di  San  Giorgio,  was  [built,  erected,  con- 
structed] upon  the  summit  of  a  small  conical  hill,  amid  the 
sloping  bases  of  the  Apennines,  at  a  [part,  portion,  point]  of 
their  long  range  where  the  [tops,  summits]  were  low  and 
green.  In  that  delightful  [place,  spot,  country,  neighbor- 
hood, region,  district]  the  cultivation  and  richness  of  the 
plain  is  united  to  the  wildness  and  [prettiness,  sublimity, 
beauty,  attractiveness]  of  the  hills.  The  heat  is  tempered  in 
the  shady  valleys  and  under  the  [dense,  thick,  solid,  impene- 
trable] woods.  A  delicious  [humidity,  wetness,  dampness, 
moisture]  and  soft  haze  hangs  about  these  dewy,  grassy 
places,  which  the  sun  has  power  to  [warm,  heat]  and  glad- 
den, but  not  to  parch.  Flowers  of  every  hue  cover  the 
ground  beneath  the  oaks  and  elms.  Nightingales  sing  in 
the  thickets  of  wild  rose  and  clematis,  and  the  groves  of 
laurel  and  of  the  long-leaved  olives  are  [full  of,  swarming 
with,  crowded  with]  small  creatures  in  the  full  enjoyment  of 
life  and  warmth.  Little  brooks  and  rippling  streams,  half 
[hidden,  concealed,  obscured]  by  the  tangled  thickets,  and 
turned  from  their  courses  by  the  mossy  rocks,  flow  down 
from  the  hill  ravines,  as  joyful  and  clear  as  in  that  old  time 
when  each  was  the  care  of  some  [defending,  protecting,  shield- 
ing] nymph  or  rural  god.  In  the  waters  of  the  placid  lake 
are  reflected  the  shadows  of  the  hills,  and  the  tremulous 
shimmer  of  waving  woods.  —  Shorthouse  :  John  Inglesant. 

B.  Read  the  following  paragraphs  until  you  have  complete 
possession  of  the  thought.  Then  rewrite,  substituting  other  ex- 
pressions of  equivalent  meaning  for  those  italicized.  The  change 
in  phraseology  may  compel  a  change  in  grammatical  structure. 


160  WORDS. 

1.  The  effect  of  the  great  freedom  of  the  press  in  England 
has  been,  in  a  great  measure,  to  destroy  this  distinction  [be- 
tween oratory  and  other  forms  of  literature],  and  to  leave 
among  us  little  of  what  I  call  Oratory  Proper.  Our  legisla- 
tors, our  candidates,  on  great  occasions  even  our  advocates, 
address  themselves  less  to  the  audience  than  to  the  reporters. 
They  think  less  of  the  few  hearers  than  of  the  innumerable 
readers.  At  Athens  the  case  was  different ;  there  the  only 
object  of  the  speaker  was  immediate  conviction  and  persua- 
sion. He,  therefore,  who  would  justly  appreciate  the  merit 
of  the  Grecian  orators  should  place  himself,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  in  the  situation  of  their  auditors  :  he  should  divest 
himself  of  his  modern  feelings  and  acquirements,  and  make 
the  prejudices 'and  interests  of  the  Athenian  citizen  his  own. 
He  who  studies  their  works  in  this  spirit  will  find  that  many 
of  those  things  which,  to  an  English  reader,  appear  to  be 
blemishes,  —  the  frequent  violation  of  those  excellent  rules 
of  evidence  by  which  our  courts  of  law  are  regulated,  —  the 
introduction  of  extraneous  matter,  —  the  reference  to  consider- 
ations of  political  expediency  in  judicial  investigations,  —  the 
assertions,  without  proof,  —  the  passionate  entreaties,  —  the 
furious  invectives,  —  are  really  proofs  of  the  prudence  and 
address  of  the  speakers.  He  must  not  dwell  maliciously  on 
arguments  or  phrases,  but  acquiesce  in  his  first  impressions. 
It  requires  repeated  perusal  and  reflection  to  decide  rightly 
on  any  other  portion  of  literature.  But  with  respect  to 
w^orks  of  which  the  merit  depends  on  their  instantaneous 
effect  the  most  hasty  judgment  is  likely  to  be  best. 

—  Macaulay  :  Essay  on  the  Athenian  Orators. 

2.  In  the  Netherlands  a  man  of  small  capacity,  with  bits 
of  tvood  and  leather,  will,  in  a  few  moments,  construct  a  toy 
that,  with  the  pressure  of  the  finger  and  thumb,  will  cry 
"  cuckoo !    cuckoo  ! "     With   less  of   ingenuity  and  inferior 


CHOICE    OF    WORDS.  161 

materials  the  people  of  Ohio  have  made  a  toy  that  will, 
without  much  pressure,  cry  "  Previous  question,  Mr. 
Speaker  !     Previous  question,  Mr.  Speaker  !  '^ 

—  John  Randolph. 

C.  Fill  the  blanks  with  who,  ivhom,  which,  or  that,  and  select 
the  fitting  words  from  the  brackets  :  — 

December  13  (1710). 

An  old  friend  of  mine  being  lately  come  to  town,  I  went 
to  see  him  on  Tuesday  last  about  eight  o'clock  in  the  even- 
ing, with  a  design  to  sit  with  him  an  hour  or  two,  and  talk 
over  old  stories ;  but  upon  inquiring  after  him,  I  found  he 
was  gone  to  bed.  The  next  morning,  as  soon  as  I  was  up 
and  dressed,  and  had  despatched  a  little  business,  I  came 
again  to  my  friend's  house  about  eleven  o'clock,  with  a  de- 
sign to  renew  m}'-  visit ;  but  upon  asking  for  him,  his  ser- 
vant told  me  he  was  just  sat  down  to  dinner.  In  short,  I 
found  that  my  old-fashioned  friend  [zealously,  religiously, 
devotedly^  adhered  to  the  example  of  his  forefathers,  and 
observed  the  same  hours  .  .  .  had  been  kept  in  the  family 
ever  since  the  Conquest. 

It  is  very  [certain,  plain,  obvious,  clear,  sure,  apparent^ 
that  the  night  was  much  longer  formerly  in  this  island  than 
it  is  at  present.  By  the  night,  I  mean  that  portion  of' 
time  .  .  .  nature  has  thrown  into  darkness,  and  .  .  .  the 
wisdom  of  mankind  had  formerly  dedicated  to  rest  and 
silence.  This  used  to  begin  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening 
and  conclude  at  six  in  the  morning.  The  curfew  or  eight 
o'clock  bell  was  the  [sign,  token,  signal,  device']  throughout 
the  nation  for  putting  out  their  candles  and  going  to  bed. 

Our  grandmothers,  though  they  were  wont  to  sit  up  the 
last  in  the  family,  were  all  of  them  fast  asleep  at  the  same 
hours  .  .  .  their  daughters  are  busy  at  crimp  and  basset. 
Modern  statesmen  are  concerting  schemes,  and  engaged  in 


162  WORDS. 

the  depths  of  politics,  at  the  time  when  their  forefathers 
were  laid  down  [^calmly,  peacefully,  quietly']  to  rest,  and  had 
nothing  in  their  heads  but  dreams.  As  we  have  thus 
thrown  business  and  pleasure  into  the  hours  of  rest,  and  by 
that  means  made  the  natural  night  but  half  as  long  as  it 
should  be,  we  are  forced  to  piece  it  out  with  a  great  part  of 
the  morning ;  so  that  near  two-thirds  of  the  nation  lie  fast 
asleep  for  several  hours  in  broad  daylight.  This  irregularity 
has  grown  so  very  fashionable  at  present  that  there  is  scarce 
a  lady  of  quality  in  Great  Britain  .  .  .  ever  saw  the  sun 
rise.  And  if  the  humor  increases  in  proportion  to  what  it 
has  done  of  late  years,  it  is  not  impossible  but  our  children 
maj'^  hear  the  bell-man  going  about  the  streets  at  nine  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  and  the  watch  making  their  rounds  until 
eleven.  This  unaccountable  [trait,  inclination,  disposition, 
idiosyncrasy,  pecidiarity,  characteristic']  in  mankind  to  con- 
tinue awake  in  the  night  and  sleep  in  sunshine,  has  made 
me  inquire  whether  the  same  change  of  inclination  has  hap- 
pened to  any  other  animals  ?  For  this  reason  I  desired  a 
friend  of  mine  in  the  country  to  let  me  know,  whether  the 
lark  rises  as  early  as  he  did  formerly  and  whether  the  cock 
[commences,  begins,  starts]  to  crow  at  his  usual  hour  ?  My 
friend  has  answered  me,  that  his  poultry  are  as  regular  as 
ever,  and  that  all  the  birds  and  the  beasts  of  his  neighbor- 
hood keep  the  same  hours  .  .  .  they  have  observed  in  the 
memory  of  man ;  and  the  same  ...  in  all  probability,  they 
have  kept  for  these  five  thousand  years. 

If  you  would  see  the  innovations  .  .  .  have  been  made 
among  us  in  this  particular,  you  may  only  look  into  the 
hours  of  colleges,  where  they  still  dine  at  eleven  and  sup  at 
six,  .  .  .  were  doubtless  the  hours  of  the  whole  nation  at  the 
time  when  those  places  were  founded.  But  at  present  the 
courts  of  justice  are  scarce  opened  in  Westminster  Hall  at 
the  time  when  William  Rufus  used  to  gQ  to  dinner  in  it. 


CHOICE  OF   WORDS.  163 

All  business  is  driven  forward :  the  landmarks  of  our  fathers 
(if  I  may  so  call  them)  are  removed,  and  planted  further  up 
into  the  day ;  insomuch  that  I  am  afraid  our  clergy  will  be 
obliged  (if  they  expect  full  congregations)  not  to  look  any 
more  upon  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning  as  a  regular  canonical 
hour.  In  my  own  memory,  the  dinner  has  crept  by  degrees 
from  twelve  o'clock  to  three,  and  where  it  will  fix  nobody 
knows.  —  Goldsmith. 

D.  Use  each  of  the  sets  of  words  given  in  the  second  paragraph 
of  this  chapter,  in  a  brief  paragraph,  having  especial  regard  to 
exact  statement.  In  case  of  doubt  consult  the  dictionary  or  a 
book  of  synonyms. 

E.  Use  the  sets  of  words  given  in  the  third  paragraph  of  this 
chapter  so  as  to  show  that  you  understand  the  particular  applica- 
tion of  each  word.  In  case  of  doubt  consult  the  dictionary  or  a 
book  of  synonyms. 

F.  Examine  a  recent  number  of  a  magazine  for  examples  of 
"  disagree  with,"  "  different  from,"  and  other  expressions  in  the 
fifth  paragraph  of  this  chapter. 

G.  Write  brief  paragraphs  on  the  following  themes,  showing 
the  accurate  use  of  (1)  may,  might:  (2)  can,  could ;  (3)  raise,  raised, 
has  raised,  rise,  rose,  has  risen;  (4)  sit,  sat,  has  sat,  set ;  (5)  lie,  lay, 
has  lain,  lay,  laid,  has  laid :  — 

1.  A  lost  opportunity. 

My  choice  of  a  profession. 
The  next  presidential  nominee. 

2.  My  friend's  accomplishments. 
Feats  of  strength. 

The  opportunities  of  an  educated  man  or  woman. 

3.  What  makes  the  prices  of  commodities  go  up  and 

down  ? 
Taking  an  early  train. 
Bicycling  for  girls. 


164  WORDS. 

4.  An  obstinate  old  hen, 
A  hot  day's  fishing. 
Setting  the  table  for  dinner. 

5.  How  bread  is  made. 
After  the  tornado. 

How  a  mason  builds  a  brick  wall. 

H.  Write  a  brief  account  of  a  tiresome  journey  or  walk,  using 
in  different  sentences  the  words  sameness,  uniformity,  monotony, 
each  in  a  sense  that  would  preclude  the  use  of  the  other  two. 

I.  Write  a  brief  paragraph  on  manners  in  the  schoolroom,  in 
which  you  mention  some  particular  thing  to  be  discountenanced, 
another  to  be  deprecated,  another  to  be  deplored. 

J.    Write  out  the  following  :  — 

Arrived  at  school;  found  I  had  forgotten  book;  was 
\_angry,  provoked,  vexed']  with  myself,  for  there  was  not  time 
to  go  back  for  it  and  I  needed  it;  went  to  class  without  it; 
asked  a  classmate  to  [loan,  lend']  me  her  book ;  she  [refasedj 
declined] ;  this  made  me  [^angry,  indignant]  as  she  [could, 
might]  have  [accommodated,  favored]  me  in  this ;  was  called 
on  to  translate  as  I  had  [expected,  anticipated]  that  I  [imuld, 
should]  he,  and  failed  for  [lack,  want,  need]  of  a  book.  I 
[will,  shall]  be  obliged  to  make  up  the  lesson. 

K.  Two  drafts  of  portions  of  Lincoln's  first  Inaugural  Address 
are  printed  below  in  parallel  columns.^  After  comparing  them, 
give  reasons  for  the  changes  so  far  as  you  are  able. 


It  follows  from  these  views 
that  no  State,  upon  its  own 
mere    motion,   can    lawfully 


It  follows  from  these  views 
that  no  State,  upon  its  own 
mere    motion,    can    lawfully 


1  From  Abraham  Lincoln  :  A  History,  by  John  G.  Nicolay  and  John 
Hay  (The  Century  Co.,  N.Y.,  1890),  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  237-344,  by  per- 
mission. 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS. 


165 


get  out  of  the  Union ;  that 
resolves  and  ordinances  to 
that  effect  are  legally  noth- 
ing; and  that  acts  of  violence, 
within  any  State  or  States, 
against  the  authority  of  the 
United  States,  are  insurrec- 
tionary or  treasonable,  ac- 
cording to   circumstances. 

I  therefore  consider  that 
the  Union  is  unbroken ;  and, 
to  the  extent  of  my  ability, 
I  shall  take  care  that  the 
laws  of  the  Union  be  faith- 
fully executed  in  all  the 
States.  Doing  this  I  deem 
to  be  only  a  simple  duty  on 
my  part ;  and  I  shall  perform 
it,  so  far  as  practicable,  un- 
less my  rightful  masters,  the 
American  people,  shall  with- 
hold the  requisite  means,  or 
in  some  tangible  way  direct 
the  contrary.  I  trust  this 
will  not  be  regarded  as  a 
menace,  but  only  as  the  de- 
clared purpose  of  the  Union 
that  it  will  have  its  own  and 
defend  itself.  .  .  ". 


get  out  of  the  Union;  that 
resolves  and  ordinances  to 
that  effect  are  legally  void; 
and  that  acts  of  violence, 
within  any  State  or  States, 
against  the  authority  of  the 
United  States,  are  insurrec- 
tionary or  revolutionary,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances. 

I  therefore  consider  that, 
in  view  of  the  Constitution 
and  the  laws,  the  Union  is 
unbroken ;  and  to  the  extent 
of  my  ability  I  shall  take 
care,  as  the  Constitution  ex- 
pressly enjoins  upon  me, 
that  the  laws  of  the  Union 
be  faithfully  executed  in  all 
the  States.  Doing  this  I 
deem  to  be  only  a  simple 
duty  on  my  part ;  and  I  shall 
perform  it,  so  far  as  prac- 
ticable, unless  my  rightful 
masters,  the  American  peo- 
ple, shall  withhold  the  requi- 
site means,  or  in  some 
authoritative  manner  direct 
the  contrary.  I  trust  this 
will  not  be  regarded  as  a 
menace,  but  only  as  the  de- 
clared purpose  of  the  Union 
that  it  will  constitutionally 
defend  and  maintain  it- 
self. .  .    . 


166 


WORDS, 


I  close.  We  are  not,  we 
must  not  be,  aliens  or  ene- 
mies, but  fellow-countrymen 
an  d  brethren .  Although  pas- 
sion has  strained  our  bonds 
of  affection  too  hardly,  they 
must  not,  I  am  sure  they 
will  not,  be  broken.  The 
mystic  chords  which,  pro- 
ceeding from  so  many  battle- 
fields and  so  many  patriot 
graves,  pass  through  all  the 
hearts  and  all  hearths  in 
this  broad  continent  of  ours, 
will  yet  again  harmonize  in 
their  ancient  music  when 
breathed  upon  by  the  guard- 
ian angel  of  the  nation.^ 

L.  After  reading  the  following  selection  carefully,  determine 
from  the  context  the  right  word  for  the  first  and  the  second  parenthe- 
ses. The  word  that  is  used  in  the  first  parenthesis  will  of  course  be 
used  in  the  third. 

At  other  hours  and  seasons  the  general  aspect  of  the 
plain  is  monotonous,  and  in  spite  of  the  unobstructed  view 
and  the  unfailing  verdure  and  sunshine,  somewhat  Imelayi- 


I  am  loath  to  close.  We 
are  not  enemies,  but  friends. 
We  must  not  be  enemies. 
Though  passion  may  have 
strained,  it  must  not  break, 
our  bonds  of  affection.  The 
mystic  chords  of  memory, 
stretching  from  every  battle- 
field and  patriot  grave  to 
every  living  heart  and  hearth- 
stone, all  over  this  broad 
laud,  will  yet  swell  the  chorus 
of  the  Union,  when  again 
touched,  as  surely  they  will 
be,  by  the  better  angels  of 
our  nature. 


1  This  suggestion  for  a  closing  paragraph  was  written  by  Mr.  Seward. 
The  original  draft  by  Lincoln  ran  as  follows  :  "  My  dissatisfied  fellow- 
countrymen:  You  can  forbear  the  assault  upon  it  [the  Government], 
I  cannot  shrink  from  the  defence  of  it.  With  you,  and  not  with  me, 
is  the  solemn  question  of  Shall  it  be  peace  or  a  sword  ?  "  To  this  Mr. 
Seward  objected  on  the  ground  that  "  something  besides  or  in  addition 
to  argument  is  needful  —  to  ineet  and  remove  prejudice  and  passion  in 
the  South  and  despondency  and  fear  in  the  East.  Some  words  of 
affection  —  some  of  calm  and  cheerful  confidence." 


%  CHOICE    OF    WORDS.  167 

choly,  sombre^  though  never  \_melanclioly,  sombre] ;  and  doubt- 
less the  depressed  and  [melayicholy^  sombre]  feeling  the 
Pampa  inspires  in  those  who  are  unfamiliar  with  it  is  due 
in  a  great  measure  to  the  paucity  of  life,  and  to  the  pro- 
found silence.  The  wind,  as  may  well  be  imagined  on  that 
extensive  level  area,  is  seldom  at  rest ;  there,  as  in  the  forest, 
it  is  a  "bard  of  many  breathings,"  and  the  strings  it 
breathes  upon  give  out  an  endless  variety  of  sorrowful 
sounds,  from  the  sharp  fitful  sibilations  of  the  dry,  wiry 
grasses  on  the  barren  places,  to  the  long  mysterious  moans 
that  swell  and  die  in  the  tall  polished  rushes  of  the  marsh. 


CHAPTER   VI. 
THE   FORMS   OF  PROSE   DISCOURSE. 

Kinds  of  Writing. 

48.  In  Burroughs's  Squirrels  and  Other  Fur  Bearers 
there  is  an  interesting  little  story  about  a  squirrel  and 
a  weasel.  It  holds  our  attention  because  events  are 
happening  in  it  in  rapid  succession.  We  can  easily 
imagine,  too,  that  events  happened  just  before  and  just 
after  the  part  that  is  told. 

\_Narrative']  A  hunter  of  my  acquaintance  was  one  day 
sitting  in  the  woods,  when  he  saw  a  red  squirrel  run  with 
great  speed  up  g,  tree  near  him,  and  out  upon  a  branch,  from 
which  he  leaped  to  some  rocks,  disappearing  beneath  them. 
In  a  moment  a  weasel  came  in  full  course  upon  his  trail,  ran 
up  the  tree,  then  out  along  the  branch,  leaping  from  these  to 
the  rocks,  just  as  the  squirrel  had  done,  and  pursuing  him 
into  their  recesses. 

In  the  next  selection,  which  is  about  the  same  sub- 
ject-matter, it  is  the  looks  of  the  squirrel  and  of  the 
weasel  that  engage  our  attention. 

\_Descrlption\  Half  opening  my  eyes  at  the  sound,  I  see 
a  little  red  squirrel  running  with  great  speed  up  a  tree  near 
me.  In  a  second  he  is  out  at  the  end  of  the  swaying  limb. 
Then  I  catch  a  glimpse  of  him  in  mid-air,  his  paws  extended, 
his  brush  trailing  behind  him  like  the  luminous  tail  of  a 
comet.     In  another  second  he  falls  lightly  upon  a  pile  of 

168 


KINDS   OF  WRITING.  169 

stones  and  is  gone  in  a  flash.  I  close  my  eyes  again,  but 
immediately  open  them.  Another  animal  is  going  up  the 
tree,  not  scampering  like  the  squirrel,  but  gliding,  snakelike, 
with  swift  undulating  motion.  By  his  wedge-shaped  head, 
his  round,  thin  ears,  his  prominent,  glistening,  beadlike  eyes, 
and  especially  by  the  serpentine  motions  of  his  head  and 
neck,  I  know  him  for  a  weasel.  Another  moment  and  he 
too  has  made  the  leap  and  disappeared  from  view. 

In  the  next  our  attention  is  directed,  not  to  a  story 
of  a  particular  squirrel  and  a  particular  weasel,  nor  to  a 
description  of  either  or  both  of  these  animals,  but  to 
the  idea  of  the  enmity  which  every  weasel  shows  for 
every  red  squirrel.  This  idea  is  explained  or  ex- 
pounded by  telling  us  what  any  weasel  will  do  to  show 
his  hatred  for  the  squirrel  kind. 

l_Exposition^  The  weasel  is  a  relentless  enemy  of  the  red 
squirrel.  Pursuing  his  game  by  scent,  he  will  follow  the 
squirrel  with  great  rapidity,  tracking  him  up  the  trunks  of 
trees,  gliding  after  him  out  to  the  ends  of  branches,  fearlessly 
leaping  into  the  air  when  he  surmises  that  the  squirrel  has 
leaped  before  him,  and  pursuing  him  into  the  recesses  of  the 
rocks. 

In  the  next  we  have,  in  the  first  sentence,  a  proposi- 
tion to  be  proved.  The  proofs  follow  in  the  succeeding 
sentences. 

^Argument']  We  know  that  the  weasel  is  able  to  track  its 
game  by  scent.  This  is  proved  by  the  following  incident, 
related  to  Mr.  Burroughs  by  a  hunter  of  his  acquaintance. 
The  hunter  was  one  day  sitting  in  the  woods,  when  he  saw  a 
red  squirrel  run  with  great  speed  up  a  tree  near  him,  and 
out  upon  a  long  branch,  from  which  he  leaped  to  some  rocks, 
disappearing  beneath  them.     In  a  moment  a  weasel  came  in 


170  THE  FORMS   OF  PROSE  DISCOURSE. 

full  course  upon  his  trail,  ran  up  the  tree,  then  out  along  the 
branch,  leaping  from  it  to  the  rocks  just  as  the  squirrel  had 
done,  and  pursuing  him  into  their  recesses.  Since  the 
weasel  did  not  go  directly  to  the  rocks,  as  he  would  have 
done  if  he  had  been  following  the  squirrel  by  sight,  and  since 
he  went  out  upon  the  same  branch  as  the  squirrel,  it  seems 
obvious  that  he  must  have  been  tracking  the  squirrel  by  scent. 

The  four  kinds  of  writing  thus  illustrated  are  :  — 

1 .  Narration,  in  which  the  writer  aims  to  make  people  realize 
events  and  processes  of  growth. 

2.  Description,  in  which  the  writer  aims  to  make  people  see 
images  of  objects. 

3.  Exposition,  in  which  the  writer  aims  to  make  people  under- 
stand ideas. 

4.  Argument,  in  which  the  writer  aims  to  make  people  believe 
truths. 

49.         Assignments  in  the  Kinds  of  "Writing. 

A.  Which  of  the  four  kinds  is  the  following?  Make  three 
other  versions  of  the  same  material  to  illustrate  the  other  kinds. 

The  weasel  is  a  subtle  and  arch  enemy  of  the  birds.  It 
climbs  trees,  and  explores  them  with  great  ease  and  nimble- 
ness.  I  have  seen  it  do  so  on  several  occasions.  One  day 
my  attention  was  arrested  by  the  angry  notes  of  a  pair  of 
brown  thrashers  that  were  flitting  from  bush  to  bush  along 
an  old  stone  row  in  a  remote  field.  Presently  I  saw  what  it 
was  that  excited  them  —  three  large  red  weasels  or  ermines 
coming  along  the  stone  wall,  and  leisurely  and  half  playfully 
exploring  every  tree  that  stood  near  it.  They  had  probably 
robbed  the  thrashers.  They  would  go  up  the  trees  with 
great  ease,  and  glide  serpentlike  out  upon  the  branches. 
When  they  descended  the  tree  they  were  unable  to  come 
straight  down,  like  a  squirrel,  but  went  around  it  spirally. 
How  boldly  they  thrust  their  heads  out  of  the  wall,  and  eyed 


COMBINATION   OF  THE  KINDS   OF   WRITING.      171 

me  and  sniffed  me,  as  I  drew  near,  —  their  round,  thin  ears, 
their  prominent,  glistening,  beadlike  eyes,  and  the  curving, 
snakelike  motions  of  the  head  and  neck  being  very  notice- 
able. They  looked  like  blood-suckers  and  egg-suckers. 
They  suggested  something  extremely  remorseless  and  cruel. 
—  Burroughs  :   The  Tragedies  of  the  Nests. 

B.  Bring  to  class  a  subject  that  you  think  can  be  treated  only 
in  the  descriptive  way,  and  see  if  any  other  member  of  the  class 
can  tell  how  it  might  be  treated  in  the  expository  way. 

C.  Tell  an  anecdote,  and  then  suggest  how  it  might  be  turned 
into  description,  or  used  as  argument. 


Combination  of  the  Kinds  of  Writing. 

50.  Two  or  more  of  these  kinds  of  writing  are  often 
used  in  one  piece  of  literature.  The  writer  of  a  narra- 
tive frequently  finds  it  necessary  to  describe  things 
while  telling  his  story ;  but  his  chief  aim  is  the  story. 
The  writer  of  a  narrative  or  of  a  description  may  have 
a  purpose  to  effect  some  reform  by  his  narrative  or  his 
description,  as  Dickens  had  in  Nicholas  Nicklehy^  but 
that  does  not  alter  the  character  of  the  piece  as  a  whole. 
The  story  with  a  purpose  remains  a  story.        ^ 

So,  too,  a  writer  explaining  or  expounding  an  idea,  or 
arguing  a  proposition,  may  tell  an  anecdote  in  order  to 
make  his  meaning  clearer.  By  itself  the  anecdote  is  of 
course  narration,  but  its  presence  in  the  exposition  or 
the  argument  does  not  change  the  nature  of  the  compo- 
sition. 

Description  sometimes  disguises  itself  as  narration. 
Robinson  Crusoe's  description  of  his  home  after  the 
shipwreck  reads  like  narrative,  because  he  adopts  the 


172  THE  FORMS   OF  PROSE  DISCOURSE. 

plan  of  telling  how  he  made  it  instead  of  telling  how  it 
looked  when  finished.  A  tennis  court  would  probably 
be  best  described  to  one  who  has  never  seen  such  a  thing 
by  telling  how  it  is  made  —  clearing  the  ground,  measur- 
ing, levelling,  marking,  placing  the  net,  etc.  Wherever 
motion  enters  into  a  description  —  as  in  a  battle  scene 
or  a  storm  —  the  narrative  method  begins  to  appear  ;  but 
the  piece  remains  description,  for  the  aim  of  arousing 
images  of  objects  is  unchanged.  Sketches  of  travel  are 
usually  description,  although  the  scenes  are  strung  on 
a  narrative  thread  ;  for  the  aim  throughout  is  usually 
the  portrayal  of  things  seen,  and  the  conveying  of  per- 
sonal impressions. 

51.    Assignments  in  the  Combination  of  Kinds. 

A.  Describe  for  an  acquaintance  some  object  that  you  have 
made,  by  telling  how  it  looks  when  finished.  Describe  the  same 
object  by  telling,  step  by  step,  just  how  you  made  it.  A  fence,  a 
dress,  a  toy  for  a  child,  will  serve  the  purpose. 

B.  From  the  following  describe  the  umbrella  as  it  looked 
when  completed. 

After  this,  I  spent  a  great  deal  of  time  and  pains  to  make 
an  umbrefla.  I  was  indeed  in  great  want  of  one,  and  had  a 
great  mind  to  make  one.  I  had  seen  them  made  in  the 
Brazils,  where  they  are  very  useful  in  the  great  heats  which 
are  there,  and  I  felt  the  heats  every  jot  as  great  here,  and 
greater  too,  being  nearer  the  equinox;  besides,  a^  I  was 
obliged  to  be  much  abroad,  it  was  a  most  useful  thing  to  me, 
as  well  for  the  rains  as  the  heats.  I  took  a  world  of  pains 
at  it,  and  was  a  great  while  before  I  could  make  anything 
likely  to  hold;  nay,  after  I  thought  I  had  hit  the  way,  I 
spoiled  two  or  three  before  I  made  one  to  my  mind.     But  at 


COMBINATION   OF  KINDS.  173 

last  I  made  one  that  answered  indifferently  well ;  the  main 
difficulty  I  found  was  to  make  it  let  down ;  I  could  make  it 
spread,  but  if  it  did  not  let  down  too,  and  draw  in,  it  would 
not  be  portable  for  me  any  way  but  just  over  my  head,  which 
would  not  do.  However,  at  last,  as  I  said,  I  made  one  to 
answer.  I  covered  it*with  skins,  the  hair  upwards,  so  that 
it  cast  off  the  rain  like  a  penthouse,  and  kept  off  the  sun 
so  effectually  that  I  could  walk  out  in  the  hottest  of  the 
weather  with  greater  advantage  than  I  could  before  in  the 
coolest,  and  when  I  had  no  need  of  it  I  could  close  it,  and 
oarry  it  under  my  arm.  —  Defoe  :  Robinson  Criisoe. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

DESCRIPTION. 

The  Effect  of  Description. 

52.  The  effect  of  good  description  is  to  cause  clear 
images  of  things  to  start  up  in  the  mind.  Reading  the 
author's  words,  we  seem  to  see  what  the  writer  saw,  to 
hear  what  he  heard.  If  he  describes  the  moonlight,  we 
seem  to  see  it  sleeping  on  the  bank.  If  he  describes 
the  flight  of  an  express  train,  we  seem  to  hear  it  rush- 
ing by  at  headlong  speed.  When  description  is  at  its 
best,  its  effects  are  not  less  powerful  than  tljose  of  the 
things  themselves. 

Every  reader  of  Lorna  Doom  will  recall,  as  vividly 
as  if  he  had  seen  it  with  the  eyes  of  John  Ridd,  the 
quiet  home  of  the  outlaws,  — "  the  deep  green  valley, 
carved  from  out  the  mountains  in  a  perfect  oval,  with 
a  fence  of  sheer  rock  standing  round  it,  eighty  feet  or 
a  hundred  high ;  from  whose  brink  black  wooded  hills 
swept  up  to  the  sky  line."  He  can  both  see  and  hear 
the  little  river  that  "glided  out  from  underground  with 
a  soft,  dark  babble,  unawares  of  daylight,"  and  in  his 
mind  he  can  follow  its  course,  as  growing  brighter  it 
"lapsed  away  and  fell  into  the  valley,"  where  "the  val- 
ley alders  stood  on  either  marge,  and  grass  was  blading 
out  upon  it,  and  yellow  tufts  of  rushes  gathered,  look- 
ing at  the  hurry." 

174 


THE  EFFECTS   OF  DESCRIPTION,  175 

Just  so  every  one  who  has  read  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
Ivanhoe  has  seen  King  Richard  leading  the  attack  on 
the  castle  of  Front-de-Boeuf, —  "all  about  him  black  as 
the  wing  of  the  night  raven,"  rushing  to  the  fray,  "  as 
if  he  were  summoned  to  a  banquet." 

The  reason  why  good  description  produces  these  defi- 
nite effects  upon  us  is  twofold  :  — 

(1)  The  writer  has  observed  keenly  and  accurately 
the  things  to  be  described  ; 

(2)  The  writer  knows  just  the  right  words  to  use  for 
the  purpose  of  producing  the  vivid  images  that  he 
wishes  to  produce. 

53.    Assignments  on  the  Effects  of  Description. 

A.  Note  the  effects  of  the  following.  What  images  appear. be- 
fore your  mind  as  you  read? 

1.  On  arriving  at  a  hill,  I  would  slowly  ride  to  its  sum- 
mit and  stand  there  to  survey  the  prospect.  On  every  side 
it  stretched  away  in  great  undulations,  wild  and  irregular. 
How  gray  it  all  was  ! 

2.  The  other  day,  when  I  walked  to  Goodman's  Hill,  it 
seemed  to  me  that  the  atmosphere  was  never  so  full  of  fra- 
grance and  spicy  odors.  There  is  a  great  variety  in  the  fra- 
grance of  the  apple-blossoms  as  well  as  in  their  tints.  Some 
are  quite  spicy.  The  air  seemed  filled  with  the  odor  of  ripe 
strawberries,  though  it  is  quite  too  early  for  them.  The 
earth  was  not  only  fragrant,  but  sweet  and  spicy,  reminding 
us  of  Arabian  gales,  and  what  mariners  tell  of  the  Spice 
.Islands.  — Thoreau:  Summer, 

3.  No  dew-drop  is  stiller 
In  its  lupin-leaf  setting 

Than  this  water  moss-bounded. 


176  *        DESCRIPTION. 

4.  He  shook  hands  with  the  grip  of  a  vise. 

5.  A  little  round,  fat,  oily  man  of  God. 

6.  I  hear  the  wind  among  the  trees. 
Playing  celestial  symphonies ; 

I  see  their  branches  downward  bent. 
Like  the  keys  of  some  great  instrument. 

—  Longfellow  :  A  Perfect  Day. 

7.  At  daybreak  on  the  black  sea-beach, 

A  fisherman  stood  aghast, 
To  see  the  form  of  a  maiden  fair 
Lashed  close  to  a  drifting  mast. 

The  salt  sea  was  frozen  on  her  breast, 

The  salt  tears  in  her  eyes ; 
And  he  saw  her  hair,  like  the  brown  searweed. 

On  the  billows  fall  and  rise. 

—  Longfellow  :   The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus. 

8.  Upon  the  midsummer  woods  most  of  all  lay  brooding 
stillness  and  subtle,  relaxing  heat.  In  the  depths  of  one  the 
moo  of  a  restless  heifer  broke  at  intervals  upon  the  ear  like 
a  faint,  far  bell  of  distress.  The  squirrel  was  asleep.  The 
cuckoo  barely  lilted  in  silky  flight  among  the  trees.  The 
mourning  moth  lay  on  the  thistle  with  flattened  wings  as 
still  as  death.  The  blue  snake  doctor  had  dropped  on  the 
brink  of  the  green  pool  like  a  lost  jewel.  Amid  such  silence 
in  a  forest,  the  imagination  takes  on  the  belief  that  all  things 
in  Nature  understand  and  are  waiting  for  some  one  to  come 
—  for  something  to  happen  that  they  will  all  feel. 

Daphne  glided  like  a  swift,  noiseless  shadow  into  the 
woods.  —  James  Lane  Allen  :  Summer  in  Arcady. 

9.  I  gazed  upon  the  schoolroom  into  which  he  took  me 
as  the  most  forlorn  and  desolate  place  I  had  ever  seen.     I 


KINDS   OF  IMAGES.  177 

« 

see  it  now.  A  long  room,  with  three  long  rows  of  desks, 
and  six  of  forms,  and  bristling  all  round  with  pegs  for  hats 
and  slates.  Scraps  of  old  copy-books  and  exercises  litter  the 
dirty  floor.  Some  silkworms'  houses,  made  of  the  same  ma- 
terials, are  scattered  over  the  desks.  Two  miserable  little 
white  mice,  left  behind  by  their  owner,  are  running  up  and 
down  in  a  fusty  castle  made  of  pasteboard  and  wire,  looking 
in  all  the  corners  with  their  red  eyes  for  anything  to  eat. 
A  bird,  in  a  cage  very  little  bigger  than  himself,  makes  a 
mournful  rattle  now  and  then  in  hopping  on  his  perch,  two 
inches  high,  or  dropping  from  it;  but  neither  sings  nor 
chirps.  There  is  a  strange  unwholesome  smell  upon  the 
room,  like  mildewed  corduroys,  sweet  apples  wanting  air, 
and  rotten  books.  There  could  not  well  be  more  ink  splashed 
about  it,  if  it  had  been  roofless  from  its  first  construction, 
and  the  skies  had  rained,  snowed,  hailed,  and  blown  ink 
through  the  varying  seasons  of  the  year. 

—  Dickens  :  David  Copperfield. 

B.    Try  one  of  the  following  in  a  very  few  sentences :  — 

1.  Describe  a  piece  of  chalk  so  as  to  make  us  realize  its 
smoothness. 

2.  Describe  a  certain  room  so  as  to  make  us  realize  its 
dinginess. 

3.  Describe  a  garden  in  July  so  as  to  make  us  realize  its 
brightness. 

4.  Describe  a  walk  into  the  woods  especially  for  colors. 

5.  Describe  a  walk  into  the  woods  especially  for  sounds. 

6.  Describe  the  best  dinner  you  ever  enjoyed. 

Kinds  of  Images. 

54.  A  great  many  of  our  words  and  phrases  produce 
in  other  people  no  mental  images.  The  prepositions  and 
conjunctions  rarely  do.     General  terms  will  fail  to  pro- 


178  DESCRIPTION, 

duce  an  image,  whereas  specific  terms,  meaning  the  same 
thing,  will  almost  inevitably  bring  images  before  the 
mind :  civilization  makes  no  picture,  but  the  churchy 
the  school-house^  the  court-house^  make  images  for  us. 
The  animal  is  less  likely  to  set  our  minds  to 
making  pictures  than  the  mention  of  the  particular 
animal  meant.  We  have  uses,  of  course,  for  all  of 
the  words  in  our  vocabulary,  and  the  more  words 
that  we  have  of  all  kinds,  the  better  we  are  equipped  ; 
but  for  description,  the  concrete  and  the  specific  term  is  better 
than  the  abstract  ;  the  individual  is  better  than  the  general, 
because  more  likely  to  produce  a  mental  image  for  our 
reader. 

Images  of  sights  and  images  of  sounds  are  the  most 
numerous.  Of  the  images  of  sights  the  most  vivid  are 
those  produced  when  a  color  is  named,  or  when  move- 
ment is  suggested.  Most  people  produce  a  '  sound- 
image  '  with  greater  difficulty  than  they  produce  a 
'  sight-image '  ;  probably  because  the  eye  is  better 
trained  than  the  ear.  But  there  are  also  'images' 
connected  with  the  sense  of  touch,  with  the  feeling  of 
heat  and  cold,  with  smell  and  with  taste.  Words 
which  produce  such  images,  as  they  are  needed,  make 
description  almost  an  equivalent  of  the  thing  described, 
at  least  to  people  of  active  imagination. 

55.  Assignments  on  the  Use  of  the  Concrete.    ^ 

A.  Compare  the  two  versions  that  follow.  Which  causes  images 
to  appear  more  readily  and  more  vividly  ?    Why  ? 


Now  came  on  the  May-fly 
season ;  the  soft  hazy  summer 


June     was     approaching ; 
summer   weather    was    close 


KINDS   OF  IMAGES. 


179 


at  hand ;  and  there  were 
innumerable  May-flies  over 
the  water  and  the  land 
adjacent.  This  species  of 
insect  is  apparently  not 
troubled  about  the  brevity 
of  its  existence,  and  is  wholly 
unconcerned  with  anything 
except  ease  and  pleasure. 


weather  lay  sleepily  along  the 
rich  meadows  by  Avctn  side, 
and  the  green  and  gray  flies 
flickered  with  their  graceful, 
lazy,  up  and  down  flight  over 
the  reeds  and  the  water  and 
the  meadows,  in  myriads  upon 
myriads.  The  May-flies  must 
surely  be  the  lotus-eaters  of 
the  ephemerae  —  the  happiest, 
laziest,  carelessest  fly  that 
dances  and  dreams  out  his 
few  hours  of  sunshiny  life 
by  English  rivers. 

Ever}'  little  pitiful  coarse 
fish  in  the  Avon  was  on  the 
alert  for  the  flies,  and  gorging 
his  wretched  carcass  with 
hundreds  daily,  the  glutton- 
ous rogues !  and  every  lover 
of  the  gentle  craft  was  out 
to  avenge  the  poor  May- 
flies. 
—  Tom  Brown's  Sdiool-days. 

B.  Write  a  letter  to  a  distant  friend  describing  a  certain  ride 
that  you  have  taken.  In  the  course  of  the  letter  use  some  words 
indicating  motions,  some  indicating  sounds,  some  indicating  other 
sensations. 


All  of  the  fish  in  the  Avon 
Avere  watching  for  the  flies, 
and  each  day  ate  a  great 
many,  perhaps  a  larger  num- 
ber than  was  necessary  to 
satisfy  hunger.  A  *great 
many  fishermen  were  about. 


C.    Compare  the  two  versions  that  follow, 
image-making  words  and  phrases. 

Even 


Mark  all  of  the 


1.  The  very  gnarliest  and 
hardest  of  hearts  has  some 
musical  strings  in  it.     2.  But 


1.  Even  the  most  irre- 
sponsive person  is  in  some 
degree  susceptible  to  the  in- 


180 


DESCRIPTION. 


they  are  tuned  differently  in 
every  one  of  us,  so  that  the 
self-same  strain,  which  wak- 
ens a  thrill  of  sympathetic 
melody  in  one,  may  leave 
another  quite  silent  and  un- 
touched. 3.  For  whatever  I 
love,  my  delight  amounts  to 
an  extravagance.  4.  There 
are  verses  which  I  cannot 
read  without  tears  of  exul- 
tation, which  to  others  are 
merely  indifferent.  5.  Those 
simple  touches  scattered  here 
and  there,  by  all  great  writ- 
ers, which  make  me  feel  that 
I,  and  every  most  despised 
and  outcast  child  of  God  that 
breathes,  have  a  common 
humanity  with  those  glori- 
ous   spirits,    overpower    me. 

6.  Poetry  has  a  key  which 
unlocks  some  more  inward 
cabinet  of  my  nature  than  is 
accessible  to  any  other  power. 

7.  I  cannot  explain  it  or  ac- 
count for  it,  or  say  what 
faculty  it  appeals  to.  8.  The 
chord  which  vibrates  strong- 
ly becomes  blurred  and  in- 
visible in  proportion  to  the 
intensity  of  its  impulse. 
9.  Often  the  mere  rhyme,  the 
cadence   and    sound    of    the 


flue  nee  of  poetry.  2.  But 
our  susceptibilities  are  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  so  that  a  poem 
which  affects  one  person  a 
good  deal,  may  affect  another 
not  at  all.  3.  For  whatever 
I  love,  my  delight  amounts 
to  an  extravagance.  4.  There 
are  verses  which  I  cannot 
read  without  a  strong  feel- 
ing of  exultation,  which  to 
others  are  merely  indifferent. 
5.  Those  simple  passages  oc- 
curring in  various  places  in 
the  poems  of  great  writers, 
which  make  me  feel  that  I 
and  every  other  person,  how- 
ever humble,  have  a  common 
humanity  with  those  superior 
minds,  arouse  in  me  very 
strong  emotions.  6.  Poetry 
causes  deeper  feelings  than 
are  caused  by  anything  else. 
7.  I  cannot  explain  it  or 
account  for  it,  or  say  what 
faculty  it  affects.  8.  The 
stronger  the  feeling,  the 
harder  it  is  to  say  what  it  is 
or  whence  it  comes.  9.  Often 
the  mere  rhyme,  the  cadence 
and  sound  of  the  words,  cause 
this  strange  feeling  in  nie. 
10.  Not  only  do  all  the  hap- 
py associations  of   my  early 


KINDS   OF  IMAGES. 


181 


words,  awaken  this  strange 
feeling  in  me.  10.  Not  only 
do  all  the  happy  associations 
of  my  early  life,  that  before 
lay  scattered,  take  beautiful 
shapes,  like  iron  dust  at  the 
approach  of  the  magnet,  but 
something  dim  and  vague  be- 
yond these  moves  itself  in 
me  with  the  uncertain  sound 
of  a  far-off  sea.  —  Lowell  : 
Conversations  on  some  of  the 
Old  Poets. 


56. 


life,  that  were  before  sepa- 
rated in  my  mind,  now  come 
together  in  beautiful  and 
symmetrical  order,  but  I  am 
conscious  of  something  un- 
defined and  difficult  of  appre- 
hension in  addition  to  these. 


Assignments  on  Kinds  of  Images. 

A.  Read  attentively  Gray's  Elegy,  or  Burns's  The  Cotter's  Sat- 
urday Night,  or  Coleridge's  The  Ancient  Mariner,  noticing  all  of 
the  images.     Classify  the  images. 

B.  In  reading  the  following  do  you  at  any  place  experience  a 
sensation  of  muscular  strain,  of  holding  on  to  keep  from  falling? 
What  words  produce  this  effect?  Is  there  also  a  sight-image? 
Tell,  orally,  what  you  see. 

1.  The  "  little  cliff ''  upon  whose  edge  he  had  so  carelessly 
thrown  himself  down  to  rest  that  the  weightier  portion  of 
his  body  hung  over  it,  while  he  was  only  kept  from  falling 
by  the  tenure  of  his  elbow  on  its  extreme  and  slippery  edge 
—  this  "little  cliff"  arose  a  sheer  unobstructed  precipice  of 
black  shining  rock,  some  fifteen  or  sixteen  hundred  feet  from 
the  world  of  crags  beneath  us.  In  truth,  so  deeply  was  I 
excited  by  the  perilous  position  of  my  companion,  that  I 
fell  at  full  length  upon  the  ground,  clung  to  the  shrubs 
around  me,  and  dared  not  even  glance  upward  at  the  sky  — 
while  I  struggled  in  vain  to  divest  myself  of  the  idea  that 
the  very  foundations  of  the  mountain  were  in  danger  from 


182  DESCRIPTION. 

the  fury  of  the  winds.  It  was  long  before  I  could  reason 
myself  into  sufficient  courage  to  sit  up  and  look  out  into  the 
distance.  —  Poe  :  A  Descent  into  the  Maelstrom. 

C.  Describe  a  wrestling-match  with  a  view  to  make  us  realize 
muscular  strain. 

D.  Which  of  the  following  words  suggest  no  image  to  you? 
Classify  those  that  do  suggest  images,  as  sights,  sounds,  etc.  Do 
any  appeal  to  more  than  one  sense  ? 

Sugary,  crawling,  vale,  serpentine,  coo,  musty,  sticky, 
shiver,  whistle,  galling,  slimy,  oily,  rattle,  rancid,  plunge, 
gabble,  sirupy,  ooze,  glade,  flaming,  flags,  smouldering, 
charnel-house,  purplish,  smudge,  blotches,  geranium,  lily- 
of-the- valley,  new-mown  hay,  crash,  huzzas,  farewell,  experi- 
ence, trembling,  pallid,  dejected,  hilarious,  browsing. 

E.  Describe  the  mental  image  suggested  by  any  one  of  the 
preceding  words. 

F.  In  the  following  note  especially  the  appeals  to  the  senses 
of  taste  and  smell.  What  image -words  fail  to  give  you  the  sug- 
gestion evidently  desired  by  the  writer?  What  other  images  are 
there  here? 

1.  Grace  having  been  said  by  the  doctor,  dinner  began. 
There  was  some  nice  soup :  also  roast  meat,  boiled  meat, 
vegetables,  pie,  and  cheese. 

2.  The  town  of  Portlossie  lay  above,  still  as  a  country 
hamlet,  with  more  odors  than  people  about ;  of  people  it  was 
seldom,  indeed,  that  three  were  to  be  spied  at  once  in  the 
wide  street,  while  of  odors  you  would  always  encounter  a 
smell  of  leather  from  the  saddler's  shop,  and  a  mingled 
message  of  bacon  and  cheese  from  the  very  general  dealer's 
—  in  whose  window  hung  what  seemed  three  hams,  and  only 
he  who  looked  twice  would  discover  that  the  middle  object 
was  no  ham,  but  a  violin  —  while  at  every  corner  lurked  a 


KINDS   OF  IMAGES.  183 

scent  of  gilly  flowers  and  southernwood.  Idly  supreme,  Port- 
lossie,  the  upper,  looked  down  in  condescension,  that  is  in 
half-concealed  contempt,  on  the  ant-heap  below  it. 

—  Macdonald  :  Malcolm. 

3.  The  smoky  kitchen  was  high  and  spacious.  The  cop- 
per utensils  and  the  crockery  shone  in  the  reflection  of  the 
hearth.  A  cat  lay  asleep  on  a  chair,  a  dog  under  the  table. 
One  perceived  an  odor  of  milk,  apples,  smoke,  that  inde- 
scribable smell  peculiar  to  old  farm  houses,  the  odor  of  the 
earth,  of  the  walls,  of  furniture,  the  odor  of  spilled  stale 
soup,  of  former  washdays  and  of  former  inhabitants,  the 
smell  of  animals  and  of  human  beings  combined,  of  things 
and  of  persons,  the  odor  of  time,  and  of  things  that  have 
passed  away.  —  Maupassant  :   Tlie  Farmer's  Wife. 

G.  Describe  a  bakery  shop,  emphasizing  the  appeals  to  the 
sense  of  smell.  Or  describe  a  small  railway  waiting-room  on  a 
raijiy  morning  at  train  time.  Or  describe  a  schoolroom  in  winter  so 
as  to  emphasize  the  need  of  ventilation. 

H.  Note  in  the  following  the  images  of  things  in  motion. 
What  words  especially  give  motion  to  the  picture?  What  other 
images  are  there  ? 

I  can  see  the  wonderful  old  lady  now,  as  she  was  then, 
with  her  cape  pinned  awry,  rocking  her  splint-bottom  chair 
nervously  while  she  talked. 

—  Eggleston  :   The  Hoosier  Schoolmaster. 

The  home  season  of  the  herring-fishery  was  to  commence. 
The  little  harbor  w^as  one  crowd  of  stumpy  masts,  each  with 
its  halyard,  the  sole  cordage  visible,  rove  through  the  top 
of  it,  for  the  hoisting  of  a  lug  sail,  tanned  to  a  rich  red  brown. 
From  this  underwood  towered  aloft  the  masts  of  a  coasting 
schooner,  discharging  its  load  of  coal  at  the  little  quay. 
Other  boats  lay  drawn  up  on  the  beach  in  front  of  the  Sea- 
ton,  and  beyond  it  on  the  other  side  of  the  burn.     Men  and 


184  DESCRIPTION. 

women  were  busy  with  brown  nets,  laying  them  out  on  the 
short  grass  of  the  shore,  mending  them  with  netting  needles 
like  small  shuttles,  carrying  huge  burdens  of  them  on  their 
shoulders  in  the  hot  sunlight ;  others  were  mending,  calking, 
or  tarring  their  boats,  and  looking  to  their  various  fittings. 
All  was  preparation  for  the  new  venture  in  their  own  waters, 
and  everything  went  merrily  and  hopefully.  Wives  who 
had  not  accompanied  their  husbands  now  had  them  home 
again,  and  their  anxieties  would  henceforth  endure  but  for 
a  night  —  joy  would  come  with  the  red  sails  in  the  morning ; 
lovers  were  once  more  together,  the  one  great  dread  broken 
into  a  hundred  little  questioning  fears ;  mothers  had  their 
sons  again,  to  watch  with  loving  eyes  as  they  swung  their 
slow  limbs  at  their  labor,  or  in  the  evenings  sauntered  about, 
hands  in  pocket,  pipe  in  mouth,  and  blue  bonnet  cast  care- 
lessly on  the  head. 

—  George  Macdonald  :  Malcolm. 

I.  Describe  a  schoolmate  reciting,  with  special  reference  to 
words  of  motion. 

J.  Can  you  imagine  how  the  different  voices  described  below 
sounded  ?  Can  you  express  more  fully  in  words  how  each  sounds  to 
you? 

1.  All  of  a  sudden,  out  of  the  middle  of  the  trees  in  front 
of  us,  a  thin,  high,  trembling  voice  struck  up  the  well-known 
air  and  words  :  — 

"  Fifteen  men  on  the  dead  man's  chest  — 
Yo — ho  —  ho,  and  a  bottle  of  rum  !  " 

2.  .  .  .  a  low,  muffled,  neutral  tone,  as  of  a  voice  heard 
through  cotton  wool.  .  .  . 

3.  The  other  snarled  aloud  into  a  savage  laugh. 

4.  ...  a  thick  voice  —  a  muddy  voice  that  would  have 
made  you  shudder  —  a  voice  like  something  soft  breaking 
in  two. 


KINDS   OF  IMAGES,  185 

5.  A  voice  like  the  wail  of  the  banshee. 

6.  ...  to  hear  her  wonder  and  lament  and  suggest  with 
soft,  liquid  inflections,  and  low,  sad  murmurs,  in  tones  as 
full  of  serious  tenderness  .  .  . 

7.  ...  a  voice  like  a  blunt  saw  going  through  a  thick 
board.  .  .  . 

8.  ...  a  hard,  sharp,  metallic,  matter-of-business  clink 
in  the  accents  of  the  answer,  that  produces  the  effect  of  one 
of  those  bells  which  small  tradespeople  connect  with  their 
shop  doors,  and  which  spring  upon  your  ear  with  such  vi- 
vacity as  you  enter  that  your  first  impulse  is  to  retire  at 
once  from  the  precincts. 

9.  He  had  been  talking  with  a  vehemence  that  shook  the 
house. 

K.  In  a  few  words  characterize  the  most  remarkable  voice  that 
you  have  ever  heard. 

L.  What  suggestions  of  sound  and  stillness  do  you  find  in  the 
following  ?  Notice  the  parts  of  speech  that  are  most  serviceable 
in  producing  these  suggestions. 

Except  on  the  terrace  surrounded  with  a  stone  parapet 
in  front  of  the  house,  where  there  was  a  parterre  kept  with 
some  neatness,  grass  had  spread  itself  over  the  gravel  walks, 
and  over  all  the  low  mounds  once  carefully  cut  as  black  beds 
for  the  shrubs  and  larger  plants.  Many  of  the  windows 
had  the  shutters  closed,  and  under  the  grand  Scotch  fir  that 
stooped  towards  one  corner,  the  brown  fir-needles  of  many 
years  lay  in  a  small  stone  balcony  in  front  of  two  such 
darkened  windows.  All  round,  both  .near  and  far,  there 
were  grand  trees,  motionless  in  the  still  sunshine,  and,  like  all 
large  motionless  things,  seeming  to  add  to  the  stillness. 
Here  and  there  a  leaf  fluttered  down ;  petals  fell  in  a  silent 
shower ;  a  heavy  moth  floated  by,  and  when  it  settled,  seemed 
to  fall  wearily ;  the  tiny  birds  alighted  on  the  walks,  and  hopped 


186  DESCRIPTION. 

about  in  perfect  tranquillity ;  even  a  stray  rabbit  sat  nibbling 
a  leaf  that  was  to  its  liking,  in  the  middle  of  a  grassy  space, 
with  an  air  that  seemed  quite  impudent  in  so  timid  a  crea- 
ture. No  sound  was  to  be  heard  louder  than  a  sleepy  hum, 
and  the  soft  monotony  of  running  water  hurrying  on  to  the 
river  that  divided  the  park.  —  George  Eliot  :  Felix  Holt. 

M.  Describe  the  noise  of  falling  waters,  or  the  sounds  heard 
at  a  football  game,  or  sounds  at  night. 

N.  Describe  some  busy  scene,  —  a  railway  station,  a  market,  a 
street  at  6  o'clock  p.m.,  a  store  on  bargain  day,  —  so  as  to  make 
us  realize  continuous  motion. 

0.  Why  are  so  many  colors  mentioned  in  the  following?  — 
I  was  afraid  of  Miss  McKenna.  She  was  six  feet  high, 
all  yellow  freckles  and  red  hair,  and  was  simply  clad  in 
white  satin  shoes,  a  pink  muslin  dress,  an  apple-green  stuff 
sash,  and  black  silk  gloves,  with  yellow  roses  in  her  hair. 
Wherefore  I  fled  from  Miss  McKenna.  —  Kipling  :  The 
Daughter  of  the  Regiment,  in  Plain  Tales  from  the  Hills. 

P.  Describe  briefly  a  county  fair  with  special  reference  to 
colors.     Or 

Q.  Describe  from  observation  any  group  of  people  with  special 
reference  to  color.     Or 

R.  Describe  in  a  letter  to  a  friend  a  new  and  attractive  gown 
that  you  have  seen. 

S.  Study  the  advertisements  in  the  electric  cars,  and  decide 
whether  their  relative , effectiveness  depends  to  any  extent  upon 
words  of  motion  or  words  of  color. 

T.    Try  writing  an  effective  advertisement. 

The  Point  of  View. 
57.    In  description  of  any  length  beyond  a  few  lines, 
much  depends  on  the  choice  of  a  point  from  which  to 
make  our  observations  of   the  thing  to  be  described. 


THE  POINT  OF  VIEW.  187 

Those  who  use  a  camera  know  that  it  is  important  to 
choose  an  advantageous  spot  from  which  to  take  the 
picture.  They  know  that  when  once  the  camera  is 
placed,  its  position  must  not  be  changed  during  the 
exposure;  for  any  shifting  results  in  overlapping  and 
confusion  in  the  picture.  The  photographer  may,  of 
course,  make  a  series  of  exposures  from  different  points 
of  view — at  different  angles  if  he  chooses,  or  at  closer 
and  closer  range.  Taken  from  a  remote  point,  the  ob- 
ject will  show  only  dim  general  outlines  in  the  picture; 
taken  at  closer  range,  it  will  show  clearly  many  details 
that  cannot  be  distinguished  in  the  first  picture.  One 
who  is  making  observations  with  a  view  to  description 
is  much  like  the  photographer.  He  will  choose  an  advan- 
tageous point  from  which  to  vie-w  the  object  to  be  de- 
scribed, and  will  tell  only  what  can  be  seen  from  that 
point. 

He  will  not  commit  the  absurdity  of  describing  the 
back  of  a  church  while  he  and  his  reader  stand  at  the 
front.  He  will  take  his  reader  with  him  around  the 
church,  where  they  can  both  see  the  back  of  it.  If 
afterward  he  wishes  to  describe  the  interior  of  the 
church,  he  will  invite  his  reader  to  go  in  with  him.  If 
the  object  to  be  described  is  distant,  he  will  not  speak 
of  it  as  if  it  were  close  at  hand.  He  will  not  put  in 
details  that  he  cannot  see  from  his  point  of  view,  even 
though  he  knows  they  are  there  ;  but  after  describing 
the  impression  made  by  the  object  as  seen  from  a  dis- 
tance, he  will  take  his  reader  to  a  closer  point,  from 
which  the  details  that  he  wishes  to  mention  can  be 
readily  seen  by  both. 

In   some   cases   it   will   be   necessary    to   adopt    the 


188  DESCRIPTION. 

traveller's  point  of  view^  that  is,  to  change  the  point  of 
view  several  times,  in  order  to  give  attention  to  a  series 
of  objects  one  after  the  other.  The  story-writer  was 
at  fault  who,  writing  a  description  of  a  building  from  a 
viewpoint  across  an  open  public  square,  quoted  an  in- 
scription that  was  cut  in  the  side  wall  of  the  vestibule, 
as  if  the  inscription  could  be  read  at  that  distance.  It 
is  alTvays  proper  to  change  the  point  of  vie-w,  in  order  that 
the  details  that  need  mention  may  be  seen,  but  the  reader 
must  be  made  avrare  of  every  change.  Evidently  it  is 
necessary,  if  we  would  avoid  faults  in  writing  descrip- 
tion, to  imitate  the  photographer  by  making  an  actual 
observation  of  the  thing  to  be  described,  choosing  our 
point  of  view  so  as  to  justify  the  introduction  of  such 
details  as  we  wish  our  reader  to  see. 

58.  Assignments  on  Point  of  View. 

A.  In  the  following  selection,  what  is  probably  the  point  of 
view  at  the  outset?  Is  the  point  of  view  changed?  What  indi- 
cates the  change?    Is  anything  mentioned  that  could  not  be  seen? 

I  had  now  come  in  sight  of  the  house.  It  is  a  large 
building  of  brick,  with  stone  quoins,  and  is  in  the  Gothic 
style  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  day,  having  been  built  in  the 
first  year  of  her  reign.  The  exterior  remains  very  nearly 
in  its  original  state,  and  may  be  considered  a  fair  specimen 
of  the  residence  of  a  wealthy  country  gentleman  of  those 
days.  A  great  gateway  opens  from  the  park  into  a  kind  of 
courtyard  in  front  of  the  house,  ornamented  with  a  grass 
plot,  shrubs,  and  flower-beds.  The  gateway  is  in  imitation 
of  the  ancient  barbican ;  being  a  kind  of  outpost,  and  flanked 
by  towers,  though  evidently  for  mere  ornament,  instead  of 
defence.  The  front  of  the  house  is  completely  in  the  old 
style ;  with  stone-shafted  casements,  a  great  bow-window  of 


THE  POINT  OF  VIEW.  189 

heavy  stone  work,  and  a  portal  with  armorial  bearings  over 
it,  carved  in  stone.  At  each  corner  of  the  building  is  an 
octagon  tower,  surmounted  by  a  gilt  ball  and  weathercock. 

B.  In  the  following,  note  the  words  by  which  we  are  made 
aware  of  the  point  of  view. 

The  point  of  view  from  which  I  first  saw  the  valley, 
was  not  altogether,  although  it  was  nearly,  the  best  point 
from  which  to  survey  the  house.  I  will  therefore  describe 
it  as  I  afterwards  saw  it  —  from  a  position  on  the  stone  wall 
at  the  southern  extreme  of  the  amphitheatre. 

The  main  building  was  about  twenty-four  feet  long  and 
sixteen  broad — certainly  not  more.  Its  total  height,  from 
the  ground  to  the  apex  of  the  roof,  could  not  have  exceeded 
eighteen  feet.  To  the  west  end  of  this  structure  was  at- 
tached one  about  a  third  smaller  in  all  its  proportions  —  the 
line  of  its  front  standing  back  about  twa  yards  from  that  of 
the  larger  house ;  and  the  line  of  its  roof,  of  course,  being 
considerably  depressed  below  that  of  the  roof  adjoining. 
At  right  angles  to  these  buildings,  and  from  the  rear  of  the 
main  one  —  not  exactly  in  the  middle  —  extended  a  third 
compartment,  very  small  —  being,  in  general,  one-third  less 
than  the  western  wing.  The  roofs  of  the  two  larger  were 
very  steep  —  sweeping  down  from  the  ridge-beam  with  a 
long  concave  curve,  and  extending  at  least  four  feet  beyond 
the  walls  in  front,  so  as  to  form  the  roofs  of  two  piazzas. 
These  latter  roofs,  of  course,  needed  no  support ;  but  as  they 
had  the  air  of  needing  it,  slight  and  perfectly  plain  pillars 
were  inserted  at  the  corners  alone.  The  roof  of  the  northern 
wing  was  merely  an  extension  of  a  portion  of  the  main  roof. 
Between  the  chief  building  and  western  wing  arose  a  very 
tall  and  rather  slender  square  chimney  of  hard  Dutch  bricks, 
alternately  black  and  red  —  a  slight  cornice  of  projecting 
bricks  at  the  top.  —  Poe  :  Landor''s  Cottage. 


190  DESCRIPTION. 

2.  Please  leave  the  little  chapel  for  the  moment,  and  walk 
down  the  nave,  till  you  come  to  two  sepulchral  slabs  near 
the  west  end,  and  then  look  about  you  and  see  what  sort  of 
a  church  Santa  Croce  is.  —  Ruskin  :  Modern  Painters. 

3.  By  this  time  they  had  come  to  the  end  of  the  street. 
Here  they  stopped  in  their  walk  and  looked  about  them. 
Tar  off  to  the  left,  etc. 

4.  The  baron  gazed  with  a  sad  eye  into  the  distance  at 
the  vast  Norman  landscape,  undulating  and  melancholy,  like 
an  immense  English  park,  where  the  farmyards,  surrounded 
by  two  or  four  rows  of  trees  and  full  of  dwarfed  apple-trees 
which  hid  the  houses,  gave  a  vista  as  far  as  the  eye  could 
see  of  forest  trees,  copses  and  shrubbery  such  as  landscape 
gardeners  look  for  in  laying  out  the  boundaries  of  princely 
estates.  —  Maupassant  :   The  Farmer^ s  Wife. 

C.  By  actual  observation  determine  what  is  the  best  point  from 
which  to  view  (1)  the  interior  of  a  certain  church,  (2)  a  busy  store, 
(3)  an  entire  village,  (4)  a  winding  stream,  (5)  an  old  mill,  (6)  a 
long  avenue,  (7)  an  old  orchard,  (8)  a  commencement  audience, 
(9)  a  railway  station  on  the  arrival  of  a  train. 

D.  Suppose  that  you  wanted  to  describe  a  picture  gallery,  and  to 
include  brief  descriptions  of  some  of  the  best  pictures  in  it.  What 
substitute  for  a  fixed  point  of  view  would  you  adopt  ? 

E.  Suppose  that  you  wished  to  make  a  description  of  a  moving 
circus  procession.     What  would  be  your  best  position  ? 

F.  Set  down  from  memory  in  a  list  the  things  that  you  would 
mention  in  a  description  of  the  exterior  of  your  own  home.  From 
what  fixed  point  of  view  can  they  all  be  seen?  Try  that  point  of 
view  yourself.     Then  revise  your  list. 

G.  Suppose  that  you  wished  to  describe  two  very  unlike  people 
by  a  running  contrast.  What  device  would  you  employ  in  order 
to  secure  an  advantageous  point  of  view  of  both  ? 


THE  ORDER   OF  OBSERVATION.  191 

The  Order  of  Observation. 

59.  There  is  a  story  of  a  German  professor  who,  get- 
ting into  an  omnibus  after  a  hard  day's  work,  and  see- 
ing his  face  reflected  in  the  mirror  at  the  front,  but  not 
recognizing  it  as  his  own,  exclaimed  mentally,  "  There's 
some  worn-out  old  pedagogue !  "  He  recognized  the 
type  before  he  recognized  the  individual.  His  first  look 
reported  the  class,  "  worn-out  old  pedagogue,"  and  only 
after  looking  longer,  a  second  or  a  third  time,  did  he 
discover  the  individual  traits  that  enabled  him  to  iden- 
tify the  image  as  that  of  a  particular  "worn-out  old 
pedagogue  "  —  himself.  Each  of  us  has  had  a  similar 
experience  when  meeting  some  old  friend  whom  we  did 
not  immediately  "place"  or  recognize.  The  first  look 
reported  to  us  only  "one  of  my  old  friends";  it  re- 
quired further  observations  to  ruark  the  traits  which 
identified  the  particular  friend.  Examples  might  be 
multiplied.  Entering  a  grove,  we  come  upon  several 
groups  of  people  disposed  in  various  ways  and  engaged 
in  various  employments.  The  first  look  reports  "a 
picnic  party  " ;  a  second,  third,  or  fourth  look  will  be 
required  to  enable  us  to  tell  what  each  group  is  about. 
On  a  noisy  street  we  may  see  a  crowd  about  a  man  who 
is  mounted  on  a  box  and  speaking  earnestly.  Our  first 
look  may  report  nothing  more  than  this.  A  second 
look  shows  us  that  he  holds  a  bottle  in  his  hand,  and 
we  at  once  register  "patent  medicine  man."  Or,  if  the 
second  look  shows  us  that  he  holds  a  leather-covered 
book  and  wears  a  military  cap,  we  as  readily  make  the 
mental  note,  "  Salvation  Army." 

The  oftener  we  look,  or  (what  is  the  same  thing)  the 


192  DESCRIPTION. 

longer  we  look,  the  more  details  do  we  see.  If  we  stand 
at  the  gate  of  a  garden  in  July,  our  first  look  will  give 
us  nothing  more  than  a  vivid  impression  of  bright  colors 
in  profusion.  As  we  continue  looking,  the  masses  of 
color  begin  to  arrange  themselves  in  our  mental  picture, 
and  we  notice  perhaps  the  plan  and  the  extent  of  the 
garden.  Only  after  repeated  observations  do  we  recog- 
nize in  detail  the  individual  objects  and  groups  that 
make  up  the  garden.  In  the  presence  of  a  building  we 
are  at  first  aware  only  of  size,  color,  shape,  and  height. 
We  must  look  repeatedly  before  our  mental  image  will 
include  the  numerous  lesser  details. 

In  all  of  these  instances  we  notice  that  our  first  ob- 
servation gives  us  in  more  or  less  imperfect  outline  an 
image  of  the  whole  object  or  scene,  and  that  this  outline 
fills  up  with  details  as  we  repeat  or  continue  our  obser- 
vations. It  is  not  true  that  "  First  we  observe  the  sep- 
arate parts,  then  the  unison  of  these  parts,  and  finally 
the  whole."  The  truth  is  that  first  we  observe  the  whole, 
gaining  from  this  observation  a  general  impression,  ac- 
curate in  proportion  to  our  familiarity  with  the  thing 
observed,  and  then  we  notice  the  parts  in  their  relation 
to  the  whole. 

60.    Assignments  on  the  Order  of  Observation. 

A.  Look  for  a  moment  down  a  busy  street  (an  unfamiliar 
street  if  possible),  and  then,  turning  aside,  make  note  of  your  first 
impression.  Look  a  second  time  somewhat  longer,  and  record  the 
details  of  your  second  observation.  Note  especially  what  elements 
appear  with  greater  clearness  in  your  picture  and  what  new  ele- 
ments appear. 

B.  Try  the  same  experiment  with  a  deep  well,  a  tall  chimney 
seen  first  from  a  distance  and  next  at  close  quarters,  an  approach- 


THE  OEDEB    OF  OBSERVATION.  193 

ing  street  car  at  night,  a  freight  train  slowly  disappearing  around 
a  curve,  a  boat  coming  into  port. 

C.  Walk  rapidly  by  a  shop-window,  and  note  down  the  general 
impression  and  the  things  observed.  Walk  by  a  second  time,  and 
add  to  your  list. 

D.  Do  you  think  that  this  description  is  written  in  the  order 
of  the  writer's  observations  ?     Give  your  reasons. 

The  room  in  which  the  House  meets  is  the  south  wing  of 
the  Capitol,  the  Senate  and  the  Supreme  Court  being  lodged 
in  the  north  wing.  It  is  more  than  thrice  as  large  as  the 
English  House  of  Commons,  with  a  floor  about  equal  in 
area  to  that  of  Westminster  Hall,  139  feet  long  by  93  feet 
wide  and  36  feet  high.  Light  is  admitted  through  the  ceil- 
ing. There  are  on  all  sides  deep  galleries  running  back- 
wards over  the  lobbies,  and  capable  of  holding  two  thousand 
five  hundred  persons.  The  proportions  are  so  good  that  it  is 
not  till  you  observe  how  small  a  man  looks  at  the  farther 
end,  and  how  faint  ordinary  voices  sound,  that  you  realize 
its  vast  size.  The  seats  are  arranged  in  curved  concentric 
rows  looking  towards  the  Speaker,  whose  handsome  marble 
chair  is  placed  on  a  raised  marble  platform  projecting 
slightly  forward  into  the  room,  the  clerks  and  the  mace 
below  in  front  of  him,  in  front  of  the  clerks  the  official 
stenographers,  to  the  right  the  seat  of  the  sergeant-at-arms. 
Each  member  has  a  revolving  arm-chair,  with  a  roomy  desk 
in  front  of  it,  where  he  writes  and  keeps  his  papers. 
Behind  these  chairs  runs  a  railing,  and  behind  the  railing 
is  an  open  space  into  which  some  classes  of  strangers  may 
be  brought,  where  sofas  stand  against  the  wall,  and  where 
smoking  is  practised,  even  by  strangers,  though  the  rules 
forbid  it. 

When  you  enter,  your  first  impression  is  of  noise  and 
tumult,  a  noise  like  that  of  short,  sharp  waves  in  a  High- 


194  DESCBIPTION. 

land  loch,  fretting  under  a  squall  against  a  rocky  shore. 
The  raising  and  dropping  of  desk  lids,  the  scratching  of  pens, 
the  clapping  of  hands  to  call  the  pages,  keen  little  boys 
who  race  along  the  gangways,  the  pattering  of  many  feet, 
the  hum  of  talking  on  the  floor  and  in  the  galleries,  make 
up  a  din  over  which  the  Speaker,  with  the  sharp  taps  of  his 
hammer,  or  the  orators,  straining  shrill  throats,  find  it  hard 
to  make  themselves  audible.  Nor  is  it  only  the  noise  that 
gives  the  impression  of  disorder.  Often  three  or  four  mem- 
bers are  on  their  feet  at  once,  each  shouting  to  catch  the 
Speaker's  attention.  Others,  tired  of  sitting  still,  rise  to 
stretch  themselves,  while  the  Western  visitor,  long,  lank, 
and  imperturbable,  leans  his  arms  on  the  railing,  chews  his 
cigar,  and  surveys  the  scene  with  little  reverence. 

—  Bryce  :  Ame7'ican  Commonwealth. 

E.  The  next  time  you  take  a  walk  go  in  some  new  direction, 
and  note  the  order  of  your  impressions  as  you  come  suddenly  upon 
an  unfamiliar  scene. 

F.  Note  your  successive  impressions  as  you  ride  swiftly  through 
a  village  after  dark,  or  as  you  stand  in  the  presence  of  a  waterfall. 

G.  Does  the  following  seem  to  reproduce  the  writer's  impres- 
sions in  the  original  order? 

When  we  came  to  the  Court,  there  was  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellor sitting  in  great  state  and  gravity,  on  the  bench,  with 
the  mace  and  seals  on  a  red  table  below  him,  and  an  im- 
mense flat  nosegay,  like  a  little  garden,  which  scented  the 
whole  Court.  Below  the  table,  again,  was  a  long  row  of 
solicitors,  with  bundles  of  papers  on  the  matting  at  their 
feet ;  and  then  there  were  the  gentlemen  of  the  bar  in  wigs 
and  gowns  —  some  awake  and  some  asleep,  and  one  talking 
and  no  one  paying  much  attention  to  what  he  said.  The 
Lord  Chancellor  leaned  back  in  his  very  easy  chair,  with  his 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL   IMAGE.  195 

elbow  on  the  cushioned  arm,  and  his  forehead  resting  on 
his  hand;  some  of  those  who  were  present  dozed;  some 
read  the  newspaper;  some  walked  about,  or  whispered  in 
groups :  all  seemed  perfectly  at  their  ease,  by  no  means  in 
a  hurry,  very  unconcerned,  and  extremely  comfortable. 

—  Dickens  :  Bleak  House. 

The  Fundamental  Image. 

61.  The  order  of  our  observation  shows  us  what  is 
the  best  order  in  which  to  describe  objects  or  scenes  so 
that  others  may  see  them  as  we  see  them.  Since  we  see 
first,  not  the  separate  details,  but  the  whole  object  or 
scene,  receiving  a  general  impression,  more  or  less  definite, 
of  size,  color,  shape,  or  of  the  most  striking  characteristic, 
it  is  evident  that  we  should  begin  our  descriptions  with 
this  general  impression.  By  beginning  with  the  general 
impression  we  furnish  our  readers  with  what  is  called 
"  the  fundamental  image  "  or  "  the  comprehensive  out- 
line." The  following  furnishes  us  with  the  fundamen- 
tal image  resulting  from  the  first  glance  or  two  at  a 
harbor.  How  easy  to  make  the  mental  picture  as  we 
learn  at  once  of  the  size  (in  the  word  "  vast "),  the 
shape  (in  the  words  "  semicircular  basin "),  the  color 
(in  '•''  blue  sea  "),  and  then,  without  delay,  of  the  prom- 
inent objects  that  were  seen  at  the  same  time,  —  the 
vessels,  palaces,  churches,  gardens,  terraces,  etc. 

Only  figure  to  yourself  a  vast  semicircular  basin  full  of 
fine  blue  sea,  and  vessels  of  all  sorts  and  sizes,  some  sailing 
out,  some  coming  in,  and  others  at  anchor ;  and  all  around 
it  palaces  and  churches  peeping  over  one  another's  heads, 
gardens,  and  marble  terraces  full  of   orange   and   cypress 


196  BESCBIPTION, 

trees,  fountains  and  trellis- works  covered  with  vines,  which 
altogether  compose  the  grandest  of  theatres. 

—  Thomas  Gray  to  Richard  West,  Genoa,  November  21, 
1739. 

Dickens  gives  in  a  single  sentence  Nicholas  Nickleby's 
first  impression  of  Dotheboys  Hall :  — 

While  the  schoolmaster  was  uttering  these  and  other 
impatient  cries,  Nicholas  had  time  to  observe  that  the 
school  was  a  long,  cold-looking  house,  one  story  high,  with 
a  few  straggling  outbuildings  behind,  and  a  barn  and  stable 
adjoining. 

The  fundamental  image  for  a  long  description  is 
often  presented  by  means  of  a  graphic  comparison 
which  gives  at  once  the  comprehensive  outline.  Sir 
Walter  Scott  {Ivanhoe^  chap,  iii)  explains  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  tables  in  the  hall  of  Cedric  the  Saxon 
by  saying  that  they  formed  a  large  T.  Creasy  com- 
pares the  field  of  Marathon  to  a  crescent.  Shelley 
compares  Lake  Como  to  "a  mighty  river  winding 
among  the  mountains  and  forests."  De  Quincey  {Tlie 
EnglisJi  Mail  Coach^  Section  11)  helps  his  reader  to 
locate  the  scene  of  a  thrilling  adventure  by  the  aid  of 
the  following  note  :  — 

Suppose  a  capital  Y :  Lancaster  at  the  foot  of  the  letter ; 
Liverpool  at  the  top  of  the  right  branch ;  Manchester  at  the 
top  of  the  left  ;  proud  Preston  at  the  centre  where  the  two 
branches  unite.  It  is  thirty-three  miles  along  either  of  the 
two  branches ;  it  is  twenty-two  miles  along  the  stem  —  viz. 
from  Preston  in  the  middle  to  Lancaster  at  the  root.  There's 
a  lesson  in  geography  for  the  reader. 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  IMAGE.  197 

Mark  Twain  prepares  for  his  description  of  the 
cathedral  of  Milan  by  picturing  it  as  it  appeared  at 
his  first  glimpse  of  it  from  the  railway  train. 

At  last,  a  forest  of  graceful  needles,  shimmering  in  the 
amber  sunlight,  rose  slowly  above  the  pigmy  house-tops,  as 
one  sometimes  sees,  in  the  far  horizon,  a  gilded  and  pin- 
nacled mass  of  cloud  lift  itself  above  the  waste  of  waves, 
at  sea.  —  Innocents  Abroad. 

In  the  description  of  a  face  (a  portrait  sketch),  the 
fundamental  image  is  often  suggested  by  dwelling  upon 
the  most  striking  characteristic  of  the  face,  or  by  in- 
dicating the  general  impression  first  received  by  the 
beholder.  Thus  Carlyle  begins  his  portrait  of  Dante, 
"To  me.it  is  a  most  touching  face."  In  the  following 
also,  the  most  striking  characteristic  is  dwelt  upon  :  — 

A  carriage,  drawn  by  four  horses,  dashed  round  the  turn 
of  the  road.  Within  it,  thrust  partly  out  of  the  window, 
appeared  the  physiognomy  of  a  little  old  man  with  a  sMii  as 
yellow  as  if  his  own  Midas-hand  had  transmuted  it.  He 
had  a  low  forehead,  small,  sharp  eyes,  puckered  about  with 
innumerable  wrinkles,  and  very  thin  lips,  which  he  made 
still  thinner  by  pressing  them  forcibly  together. 

—  Hawthorne  :   The  Great  Stone  Face. 

A  low-spirited  gentleman  of  middle  age,  of  a  meagre  habit, 
and  a  disconsolate  face.  —  Dickens  :   The  Chimes. 

This  gentleman  had  a  very  red  face,  as  if  an  undue  pro- 
portion of  the  blood  in  his  body  were  squeezing  up  into 
his  head ;  which  perhaps  accounted  for  his  having  also  the 
appearance  of  being  rather  cold  about  .the  heart. 

—  Dickens:   The  Chimes. 


198  DESCRIPTION. 

He  fixed  his  single  glass  in  his  eye  with  some  difficulty 
and  much  gnawing  motion  of  the  jaw. 

—  Agnes  and  Egerton  Castle:   The  Secret  Orchard, 
chap.  xiv. 

Begin  the  description  with  the  general  impression  or  "  funda- 
mental image  "  of  the  object  to  be  described. 

62.  Assignments  on  the  Fundamental  Image. 

A.    What  is  the  fundamental  image  in  the  following  ? 

1.  The  vehicle  sidled  round  the  hill,  resembling  in  its 
progress  a  very  infirm  crab  in  a  hurry. 

2.  A  cordon  of  blue  regiments  surrounded  the  city  at  first 
from  Carondelet  to  North  St.  Louis,  like  an  open  fan.  The 
crowds  liked  best  to  go  to  Compton  Heights,  where  the  tents 
of  the  German  citizen-soldiers  were  spread  out  like  so  many 
slices  of  white  cake  on  the  green  beside  the  city's  reservoir. 
Thence  the  eye  stretched  across  the  town,  catching  the  dome 
of  the  Court  House  and  the  spire  of  St.  John's.  Away  to 
the  west,  on  the  line  of  the  Pacific  railroad  that  led  halfway 
across  the  state,  was  another  camp.  Then  another,  and 
another,  on  the  circle  of  the  fan,  until  the  river  was  reached 
to  the  northward,  far  above  the  bend.  Within  was  a  peace 
that  passed  understanding,  —  the  peace  of  martial  law ! 

—  Churchill  :   The  Crisis,  p.  338. 

3.  I  crossed  the  Forum  at  the  foot  of  the  Palatine,  and 
ascending  the  Via  Sacra,  passed  beneath  the  Arch  of  Titus. 
From  this  point  I  saw  below  me  the  gigantic  outline  of  the 
Coliseum,  like  a  cloud  resting  upon  the  earth.  As  I  de- 
scended the  hillside,  it  grew  more  broad  and  high,  —  more 
•definite  in  its  form,  and  yet  more  grand  in  its  dimensions,  — 
till,  from  the  vale  in  .which  it  stands  encompassed  by  three 
of  the  seven  hills  of  Eome,  —  the  Palatine,  the  Coelian, 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  IMAGE.  199 

and  the  Esquiline,  —  the  majestic  ruin  in  all  its  solitary 
grandeur  "  swelled  vast  to  heaven." 

—  Longfellow  :   Outre-Mer. 

4.  The  Bay  of  Monterey  has  been  compared  by  no  less  a 
person  than  General  Sherman  to  a  bent  fishing-hook ;  and 
the  comparison,  if  less  important  than  the  march  through 
Georgia,  still  shows  the  eye  of  a  soldier  for  topography. 
Santa  Cruz  sits  exposed  at  the  shank;  the  mouth  of  the 
Salinas  River  is  at  the  middle  of  the  bend ;  and  Monterey 
itself  is  cosily  ensconced  beside  the  barb.  Thus  the  ancient 
capital  of  California  faces  across  the  bay,  while  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  though  hidden  by  low  hills  and  forest,  bombards  her 
left  flank  and  rear  with  never-dying  surf.  In  front  of  the 
town,  the  long  line  of  sea-beach  trends  north  and  northwest, 
and  then  westward  to  enclose  the  bay. 

—  Stevenson  :  Across  the  Plains. 

5.  As  we  drove  into  the  great  gateway  of  the  inn,  I  saw 
on  one  side  the  light  of  a  rousing  kitchen  fire  beaming 
through  a  window.  I  entered  and  admired,  for  the  hun- 
dredth time,  that  picture  of  convenience,  neatness,  and 
broad  honest  enjoyment,  the  kitchen  of  an  English  inn.  It 
was  of  spacious  dimensions,  hung  round  with  copper  and 
tin  vessels  highly  polished,  and  decorated  here  and  there 
with  a  Christmas  green.  Hams,  tongues,  and  flitches  of 
bacon  were  suspended  from  the  ceiling;  a  sm'okejack  made 
its  ceaseless  clanking  beside  the  fireplace,  and  a  clock 
ticked  in  one  corner.  A.  well-scoured  deal  table  extended 
along  one  side  of  the  kitchen,  with  a  cold  round  of  beef 
and  other  hearty  viands  upon  it,  over  which  two  foaming 
tankards  of  ale  seemed  mounting  guard.  Travellers  of  in- 
ferior order  were  preparing  to  attack  this  stout  repast,  while 
others  sat  smoking  and  gossiping  over  their  ale. 

—  Irving  :  Sketch  Book, 


200  DIESCRIPTION, 

6.  The  cottage  was  a  quaint  place  of  many  rough-cast 
gables  and  gray  roofs.  It  had  something  the  air  of  a  ram- 
bling infinitesimal  cathedral,  the  body  of  it  rising  in  the  midst 
two  stories  high,  with  a  steep-pitched  roof,  and  sending  out 
upon  all  hands  (as  it  were  chapter-houses,  chapels,  and  tran- 
septs) one-storied  and  dwarfish  projections.  To  add  to  this 
appearance,  it  was  grotesquely  decorated  with  crockets  and 
gargoyles,  ravished  from  some  mediaeval  church.  The  place 
seemed  hidden  away,  being  not  only  concealed  in  the  trees 
of  the  garden,  but,  on  the  side  on  which  I  approached  it, 
buried  as  high  as  the  eaves  by  the  rising  of  the  ground. 
About  the  walls  of  the  garden  there  went  a  line  of  well-grown 
elms  and  beeches,  the  first  entirely  bare,  the  last  still  pretty 
well  covered  with  red  leaves,  and  the  centre  was  occupied  with 
a  thicket  of  laurel  and  holly,  in  which  I  could  see  arches  cut 
and  paths  winding.  —  R.  L.  Stevenson  :  St.  Ives. 

B.  What  indication  of  effects  upon  the  beholder  do  you  notice 
in  the  following  ? 

1.  She  glanced  at  the  New  Englander  against  whom  she 
had  been  in  strange  rebellion  since  she  had  first  seen  him. 
His  face,  thinned  by  the  summer  in  town,  was  of  the  stern- 
ness of  the  Puritan.  Stephen's  features  were  sharply  marked 
for  his  age.  The  will  to  conquer  was  there.  Yet  justice 
was  in  the  mouth,  and  greatness  of  heart.  Conscience  was 
graven  on  the"  broad  forehead.  The  eyes  were  the  blue  gray 
of  the  flint,  kindly  yet  imperturbable.  The  face  was  not 
handsome. 

Struggling,  then  yielding  to  the  impulse,  Virginia  let  her- 
self be  Led  on  into  the  years.  Sanity  was  the  word  that  best 
described  him.  She  saw  him  trusted  of  men,  honored  of 
women,  feared  by  the  false.  She  saw  him  in  high  places, 
simple,  reserved,  poised  evenly  as  he  was  now. 

—  Churchill  :   Tlie  Crisis. 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  IMAGE.  201 

2.  I  was  coining  home  from  some  place  at  the  end  of  the 
world,  about  three  o'clock  of  a  black  winter  morning,  and 
my  way  lay  through  a  part  of  town  where  there  was  liter- 
ally nothing  to  be  seen  but  lamps.  Street  after  street,  and 
all  the  folks  asleep  —  street  after  street,  all  lighted  up  as  if 
for  a  procession  and  all  as  empty  as  a  church  —  till  at  last  I 
got  into  that  state  of  mind  when  a  man  listens  and  listens 
and  begins  to  long  for  the  sight  of  a  policeman.  All  at  once, 
I  saw  two  figures :  one  a  little  man  who  was  stumping  along 
eastward  at  a  good  walk,  and  the  other  a  girl  of  may  be 
eight  or  ten  who  was  running  as  hard  as  she  was  able  down 
a  cross  street.  Well,  sir,  the  two  ran  into  one  another  natu- 
rally enough  at  the  corner  ;  and  then  came  the  horrible  part 
of  the  thing ;  for  the  man  trampled  calmly  over  the  child's 
body  and  left  her  screaming  on  the  ground.  ...  I  gave  a 
view  halloa,  took  to  my  heels,  collared  my  gentleman,  and 
brought  him  back  to  where  there  was  already  quite  a  group 
about  the  screaming  child.  He  was  perfectly  cool  and  made 
no  resistance,  but  gave  me  one  look,  so  ugly  that  it  brought 
out  the  sweat  on  me  like  running.  The  people  who  had 
turned  out  were  the  girl's  own  family ;  and  pretty  soon,  the 
doctor,  for  whom  she  had  been  sent,  put  in  an  appearance. 
Well,  the  child  was  not  much  the  worse,  more  frightened, 
according  to  the  Sawbones ;  and  there  you  might  have  sup- 
posed would  be  an  end  to  it.  But  there  was  one  curious 
circumstance.  I  had  taken  a  loathing  to  my  gentleman  at 
first  sight.  So  had  the  child's  family,  which  was  only  natu- 
ral. But  the  doctor's  case  was  what  struck  me.  He  was 
the  usual  cut-and-dry  apothecary,  of  no  particular  age  and 
color,  with  a  strong  Edinburgh  accent,  and  about  as  emotional 
as  a  bagpipe.  Well,  sir,  he  was  like  the  rest  of  us ;  every 
time  he  looked  at  my  prisoner  I  saw  that  Sawbones  turn  sick 
and  white  with  the  desire  to  kill  him. 

—  Stevenson  :  Jehyll  and  Hyde. 


202  DESCRIPTION. 

C.  What  geometrical  figure  best  expresses  the  fundamental 
image  of  (1)  a  certain  church  interior  that  you  have  in  mind?  (2) 
a  baseball  field?  (3)  a  face?  (4)  a  room?  (5)  a  picnic  ground? 
(6)  a  gymnasium  floor?  (7)  a  park?  (8)  a  skating  rink?  (9)  a 
Mexican  hat?   (10)  a  swimming  pool? 

D.  How  is  the  effect  of  distance  conveyed  in  the  following? 
(Gloster  is  blind.) 

Edgar.   Come  on,  sir ;  here's  the  place.     Stand  still. 
How  fearful 
And  dizzy  'tis  to  cast  one's  eyes  so  low ! 
The  crows  and  choughs  that  wing  the  midway  air 
Show  scarce  so  gross  as  beetles.     Half  way  down 
Hangs  one  that  gathers  samphire,  dreadful  trade ! 
Methinks  he  seems  no  bigger  than  his  head. 
The  fishermen  that  walk  upon  the  beach 
Appear  like  mice ;  and  yond  tall  anchoring  bark 
Diminish'd  to  her  cock ;  her  cock  a  buoy 
Almost  too  small  for  sight.     The  murmuring  surge, 
That  on  the  unnumber'd  idle  pebbles  chafes, 
Cannot  be  heard  so  high.     I'll  look  no  more. 
Lest  my  brain  turn  and  the  deficient  sight 
Topple  down  headlong. 

Gloster.  Set  me  where  you  stand. 

Edgar.    Give  me  your  hand.     You  are  now  within 
a  foot 
Of  the  extreme  verge.     For  all  beneath  the  moon 
AVould  I  not  leap  upright. 

—  King  Lear,  Act  IV,  Scene  6. 

E.  Try  to  express  by  some  comparison  the  fundamental  image 
for  (1)  the  peculiar  way  in  which  a  certain  person  walks,  (2)  the 
peculiar  manner  of  speaking  that  you  have  noticed  in  some  person, 
(3)  the  way  in  which  a  heavy,  coach  climbs  a  hill,  (4)  the  move- 
ments of  a  very  large,  clumsy  person,  (5)  the  way  in  which  a  win- 
ning automobile,  runner,  or  race-horse  comes  down  the  home  stretch, 


THE  FUNDAMENTAL  IMAGE.  203 

(6)  the  way  in  which  a  person  picks  his  way  across  a  muddy  street, 

(7)  the  way  in  which  a  crowd  enter  a  hall  when  the  doors  are  first 
opened,  (8)  the  approach  of  a  thunder-storm,  (9)  the  rising  of  the 
full  moon,  (10)  the  handwriting  of  some  friend  of  yours,  (11)  the 
way  in  which  a  blue  jay  looks  at  you. 

Number  and  Selection  of  Details. 

63.  Evidently  the  number  of  details  admitted  to  a 
description  depends  upon  the  purpose  of  the  descrip- 
tion. 

(1)  If  the  purpose  is  to  give  the  reader  complete  in- 
formation,—  as  when  a  geographer  describes  a  conti- 
nent, a  scientist  a  rare  plant  or  animal,  a  traveller  a 
strange  country,  —  we  expect  a  long  inventory  of  de- 
tails, both  distinctive  of  the  object  and  common  to  the 
class  to  which  the  object  belongs. 

(2)  If  the  purpose  is  to  make  it  possible  for  the 
reader  to  identify  -with  certainty  the  object  described, 
—  as  when  a  lost  article  is  described  to  the  finder  that 
ownership  may  be  proved,  a  street  to  a  stranger  trying 
to  find  a  certain  house  in  a  large  city,  a  fugitive  from 
justice  to  an  officer  of  the  law,  a  house  to  an  architect 
that  he  may  make  plans  for  another  like  it,  —  we  ex- 
pect only  details  that  are  distinctive,  or  peculiar  to  the 
object  described. 

(3)  In  most  descriptions,  how^ever,  the  purpose  is  not 
to  give  information  more  or  less  complete,  nor  to  insure 
accurate  identification  ;  it  is  simply  to  convey  the  writer's 
impression  of  the  object,  to  let  the  reader  know  what  feel- 
ings and  moods  were  aroused  in  the  presence  of  the  ob- 
ject, and  what,  in  a  general  way,  the  thing  described 
was  like.     With  this  purpose  in  mind  the  writer  does 


204  DESCRIPTION. 

not  aim  at  complete  description.  He  selects  the  details 
that  give  the  impression,  or  that  create  the  mood,  and 
lets  the  rest  go.  Sometimes  a  single  characteristic  will 
suggest  to  the  reader'  all  that  is  needed,  as  when  Homer 
compresses  a  description  of  Ulysses  into  the  single  epi- 
thet "crafty."  Hawthorne  suggests  whole  pages  of 
detail  when  he  speaks  of  the  "  black,  moody  brow  "  of 
Septimius  Felton.  The  reader's  imagination  supplies 
what  is  missing. 

The  writer  may,  however,  give  as  many  details  as  he 
pleases  in  conveying  his  impressions,  provided  all  of 
the  details,  however  minute,  count  towards  the  effect 
desired.  In  Ruskin's  description  of  St.  Mark's  the 
reader  is  helped  to  some  sense  of  the  profusion  of  beauty 
in  the  cathedral  by  the  unusually  large  number  of  things 
mentioned  and  the  splendor  of  the  diction  employed. 
He  may  forget  the  details  as  soon  as  he  has  read  them, 
but  the  impression  of  the  cathedral's  magnificence  re- 
mains. In  Tennyson's  Mariana  the  details  all  serve  to 
emphasize  Mariana's  loneliness.  In  Poe  and  Hawthorne 
the  details  of  description  at  the  outset  of  each  tale  all 
count  toward  a  single  impression.  In  the  following 
("When  the  Sap  Rose,"  by  "Q"  in  The  Delectable 
Duchi/},  all  the  details  of  color  and  sound  and  smell 
suggest  the  coming  of  spring.  Note  also  the  verbs  ; 
they  suggest  "motion  —  the  awakening  of  spring. 

The  road  toward  the  coast  dipped  —  too  steeply  for  tight 
boots  —  down  a  wooded  coombe,  and  he  followed  it,  tread- 
ing delicately.  The  hollow  of  the  V  ahead,  where  the  hills 
overlapped  against  the  pale  blue,  was  powdered  with  a  faint 
brown  bloom,  soon  to  be  green  — an  infinity  of  bursting  buds. 


SELECTION  OF  DETAILS.  205 

The  larches  stretched  their  arms  upwards,  as  men  waking. 
The  yellow  was  on  the  gorse,  with  a  heady  scent  like  a  pine- 
apple's, and  between  the  bushes  spread  the  gray  film  of  com- 
ing bluebells.  High  up,  the  pines  sighed  along  the  ridge, 
turning  paler;  and  far  down,  where  the  brook  ran,  a  mad 
duet  was  going  on  between  thrush  and  chaffinch  —  "  Cheer 
up,  cheer  up,  Queen ! "  "  Clip,  dip,  dip,  and  kiss  me  —  Sweet ! " 
—  one  against  the  other. 

The  first  consideration,  then,  is  the  purpose  of  the  description. 
When  once  the  purpose  is  determined  the  writer  may  employ  as 
many  details  as  he  thinks  necessary  for  realizing  the  purpose; 
but  the  careful  writer  will  not  admit  to  his  description  any  detail 
that  does  not  count  toward  the  purpose  that  he  has  in  mind. 

In  all  kinds  of  writing  it  is  a  general  principle  to  use 
the  fewest  means  for  producing  the  desired  result.  This 
principle  is  violated  in  description  more  often  than  in 
any  other  kind  of  writing.  What  to  omit,  what  to  leave 
to  suggestion,  is  often  a  more  important  question  for  the 
writer  of  description  than  what  to  include. 

64.       Assignments  on  Selection  of  Details. 

A.  From  the  impression  produced  on  you  by  once  reading,  de- 
termine the  purpose  of  each  of  the  following  descriptive  passages, 
and  then  test  each  detail  by  asking  what  it  contributes  to  the  ac- 
complishment of  the  purpose. 

1.         There  are  seven  pillars  of  Gothic  mould 
In  Chillon's  dungeons  deep  and  old, 
There  are  seven  columns,  massy  and  gray, 
Dim  with  a  dull  imprisoned  ray, 
A  sunbeam  which  hath  lost  its  way. 
And  through  the  crevice  and  the  cleft 
Of  the  thick  wall  is  fallen  and  left ; 
Creeping  over  the  floor  so  damp. 


206  DESCRIPTION. 

Like  a  marsh's  meteor  lamp : 
And  in  each  pillar  there  is  a  ring, 

And  in  each  ring  there  is  a  chain ; 
That  iron  is  a  cankering  thing,  , 

For  in  these  limbs  its  teeth  remain, 
With  marks  that  will  not  wear  away, 
Till  I  have  done  with  this  new  day. 
Which  now  is  painful  to  these  eyes, 
Which  have  not  seen  the  sun  to  rise 
For  years  —  I  cannot  count  them  o'er, 
I  lost  their  long  and  heavy  score 
When  my  last  brother  drooped  and  died. 
And  I  lay  living  by  his  side. 

—  Byron  :  Prisoner  of  Gliillon. 

2.  Bill  Jenks  was  Captain  Brent's  senior  pilot.  His 
skin  hung  on  his  face  in  folds,  like  that  of  a  rhinoceros. 
It  was  very  much  the  same  color.  His  grizzled  hair,  was 
all  lengths,  like  a  worn-out  mop ;  his  hands  reminded  one 
of  an  eagle's  claw,  and  his  teeth  were  a  pine  yellow. 

—  Churchill  :   The  Crisis,  p.  325. 

3.  I  hardly  know  whether  I  am  more  pleased  or  annoyed 
with  the  catbird.  Perhaps  she  is  a  little  too  common,  and 
her  part  in  the  general  chorus  a  little  too  conspicuous.  If 
you  are  listening  for  the  note  of  another  bird,  she  is  sure  to 
be  prompted  to  the  most  loud  and  protracted  singing, 
drowning  all  other  sounds ;  if  you  sit , quietly  down  to 
observe  a  favorite  or  study  a  newcomer,  her  curiosity  knows 
no  bounds,  and  you  are  scanned  and  ridiculed  from  every 
point  of  observation.  Yet  I  would  not  miss  her;  I  would 
only  subordinate  her  a  little,  make  her  less  conspicuous. 

—  Burroughs  :    Wake- Robin. 

4.  Broadway  is  miles  upon  miles  long,  a  rush  of  life  such 
as  I  never  have  seen ;  not  so  full  as  the  Strand,  but  so  rapid. 


SELECTION    OF   DETAILS.  207 

The  houses  are  always  being  torn  down  and  built  up  again, 
the  railroad  cars  drive  slap  into  the  midst  of  the  city. 
There  are  barricades  and  scaffoldings  banging  everywhere. 
I  have  not  been  into  a  house,  except  the  fat  country  one 
but  something  new  is  being  done  to  it,  and  the  hammerings 
are  clattering  in  the  passage,  or  a  wall  or  steps  are  down,  or 
the  family  is  going  to  move.  Nobody  is  quiet  here,  no  more 
am  I.  The  rush  and  restlessness  pleases  me,  and  I  like,  for 
a  little,  the  dash  of  the  stream.  I  am  not  received  as  a  god, 
which  I  like  too.  There  is  one  paper  which  goes  on  every 
morning  saying  I  am  a  snob,  and  I  don't  say  no.  Six  people 
were  reading  it  at  breakfast  this  morning,  and  the  man 
opposite  me  popped  it  under  the  tablecloth.  But  the  other 
papers  roar  with  approbation.  —  Letters  of  Thackeray,  p.  159. 

5.  St.  Helena  is  a  conglomeration  of  rocks,  apparently 
hove,  by  volcanic  fires,  from  the  bosom  of  the  ocean.  It  is 
six  thousand  miles  from  Europe,  and  twelve  hundred  miles 
from  the  nearest  point  of  land  on  the  coast  of  Africa.  This 
gloomy  rock,  ten  miles  long  and  six  broad,  placed  beneath 
the  rays  of  a  tropical  sun,  emerges  like  a  castle  from  the 
waves,  presenting  to  the  sea,  throughout  its  circuit,  but  an 
immense  perpendicular  wall,  from  six  hundred  to  twelve 
hundred  feet  high.  There  are  but  three  narrow  openings 
in  these  massive  cliffs  by  which  a  ship  can  approach  the 
island.     These  are  all  strongly  fortified. 

—  Abbott:  Life  of  Napoleon. 

B.  What  is  the  significance  of  the  last  sentence  in  the  follow- 
ing? 

As  a  fact,  the  Registrar  wore  a  silk  hat,  a  suit  of  black 
West  of  England  broadcloth,  a  watch-chain  made  out  of 
his  dead  wife's  hair,  and  two  large  seals  that  clashed 
together  when  he  moved.  His  face  was  wide  and  round, 
with  a  sanguine   complexion,   gray   side   whiskers,   and   a 


208  DESCRIPTION. 

cicatrix  across  the  chin.  He  had  shaved  in  a  hurry  that 
morning,  for  the  wedding  was  early,  and  took  place  on  the 
extreme  verge  of  his  district.  His  is  a  beautiful  office  — 
recording  day  by  day  the  solemnest  and  most  mysterious 
events  in  nature.  Yet,  standing  at  the  cross-roads,  between 
down  and  woodland,  under  an  April  sky  full  of  sun  and 
southwest  wind,  he  threw  the  ugliest  shadow  in  the  land- 
scape. —  Q :   The  Delectable  Duchy. 

C.  What  details  of  sound,  odor,  color,  would  you  select  if  writ- 
ing a  description  of  a  very  hot,  still  summer's  day?  a  blustery 
March  day?  a  cold,  still  winter  day?  Try  a  brief  description  of 
this  kind. 

D.  Describe  a  face,  beginning  with  the  general  impression, 
emphasizing  the  most  distinctive  feature,  but  mentioning  other 
features.  See  if  from  a  number  of  photographs  another  person 
can  pick  out  the  one  you  have  described. 

E.  Stand  outside  of  a  machine  shop  or, of  a  sash  factory  and 
describe  the  different  sounds  that  you  hear. 

F.  For  purposes  of  identification  describe  some  article  that 
you  have  lost,  or  a  book  or  picture  the  name  of  which  you  have 
forgotten. 

G.  For  purposes  of  information  describe  a  Chinese  mandarin, 
a  new  kind  of  pencil  sharpener,  a  four-cell  battery,  the  walking- 
beam  of  an  oil  derrick,  a  ghoul,  a  hay-fork,  a  T-rail,  a  postal  car, 
a  cruiser,  a  man-of-war,  a  still,  a  canal  lock,  a  banshee,  a  trap,  an 
automobile,  the  interior  of  a  switch  house,  the  apparatus  for  wire- 
less telegraphy,  a  spinning  wheel,  a  Roman  lamp. 

65.      Assignments  in  Description  of  Voices. 

A.  From  the  following  can  you  get  a  sound-image  of  a  voice 
that  is  pleasant,  and  one  of  a  voice  that  is  unpleasant?  Note 
carefully  the  phrases  that  suggest  qualities  of  voice,  and  find,  if 
you  can,  a  word  to  express  each  quality  suggested. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    VOICES.  209 

I  grieve  to  say  it,  but  our  people,  I  think,  have  not 
generally  agreeable  voices.  The  marrowy  organisms,  with 
skins  that  shed  water  like  the  backs  of  ducks,  with  smooth 
surfaces  neatly  padded  beneath  the  velvet  linings  to  their 
singing-pipes,  are  not  so  common  among  us  as  that  other 
pattern  of  humanity  with  angular  outlines  and  plane  sur- 
faces, arid  integuments,  hair  like  the  fibrous  covering  of  a 
cocoanut  in  gloss  and  suppleness  as  well  as  color,  and 
voices  at  once  thin  and  strenuous ;  acidulous  enough  to 
produce  effervescence  witn  alkalis,  and  stridulous  enough  to 
sing  duets  with  the  katydids.  I  think  our  conversational 
soprano,  as  sometimes  overheard  in  the  cars,  arising  from  a 
group  of  young  persons,  who  may  have  taken  the  train  at 
one  of  our  great  industrial  centres,  for  instance  —  young 
persons  of  the  female  sex,  we  will  say,  who  have  bustled  in, 
full-dressed,  engaged  in  loud  strident  speech,  and  who, 
after  free  discussion,  have  fixed  on  two  or  more  double 
seats,  which  having  secured,  they  proceed  to  eat  apples  and 
hand  round  daguerreotypes  —  I  say  I  think  the  conversa- 
tional soprano,  heard  under  these  circumstances,  would  not 
be  among  the  allurements  the  old  Enemy  would  put  in 
requisition,  were  he  getting  up  a  new  temptation  of  St. 
Anthony.  —  Holmes  :   TJie  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table. 

B.  Can  you  imagine  from  the  following  how  Carlyle's  laugh 
sounded  ? 

After  the  most  vehement  tirade  he  would  suddenly  pause, 
throw  his  head  back,  and  give  as  genuine  and  kindly  a  laugh 
as  I  ever  heard  from  a  human  being.  It  was  not  the  bitter 
laugh  of  the  cynic,  nor  yet  the  big-bodied  laugh  of  the 
burly  joker;  least  of  all  was  it  the  thin  and  rasping  cackle 
of  the  dyspeptic  satirist.  But  it  was  a  broad,  honest,  human 
laugh,  which  beginning  in  the  brain,  took  into  its  action  the 
whole  heart  and  diaphragm,  and  instantly  changed  the  worn 


210  DESCRIPTION. 

face  into  something  frank  and  even  winning,  giving  to  it  an 
expression  that  would  have  won  the  confidence  of  any  child. 
Nor  did  it  convey  the  impression  of  an  exceptional  thing 
that  had  occurred  for  the  first  time  that  day,  and  might 
never  happen  again.  It  rather  produced  the  effect  of  some- 
thing habitual ;  of  being  the  channel,  well  worn  for  years, 
by  which  the  overflow  of  a  strong  nature  was  discharged. 
It  cleared  the  air  like  thunder,  and  left  the  atmosphere 
sweet.  It  seemed  to  say  to  himself,  if  not  to  us,  "  Do  not 
let  us  take  this  too  seriously ;  it  is  my  way  of  putting 
things.  What  refuge  is  there  for  a  man  who  looks  below 
the  surface  in  a  world  like  this,  except  to  laugh  now  and 
then?"  The  laugh,  in  short,  revealed  the  humorist;  if  I 
said  the  genial  humorist,  wearing  a  mask  of  grimness,  I 
should  hardly  go  too  far  for  the  impression  it  left.  At  any 
rate  it  shifted  the  ground,  and  transferred  the  whole  matter 
to  that  realm  of  thought  where  men  play  with  things.  The 
instant  Carlyle  laughed,  he  seemed  to  take  the  counsel  of 
his  old  friend  Emerson,  and  to  write  upon  the  lintels  of  his 
doorway,  "  Whim."  —  Higginson  :  Atlantic,  48  :  464. 

C.  Try  describing  the  voice  or  laugh  of  some  well-known 
person.  Or  work  into  one  description  a  contrast  of  two  ^  very 
different  voices.  Or  describe  the  voices  in  a  school  reading  class, 
touching  each  very  briefly. 

66.       Assignments  in  Description  of  Sounds. 

Describe  in  one  sentence,  as  vividly  as  you  can,  (1)  the 
sound  made  in  unloading  a  coal  wagon  through  a  chute,  (2)  the 
sound  made  by  the  chain  of  a  rapidly  moving  bicycle,  (3)  the  sound 
m&de  by  a  bicycle  bell  sounded  unexpectedly  behind  you,  (4)  the 
sound  of  oars  in  the  water  at  a  distance  on  a   quiet  evening, 

(5)  the  sound  of  footsteps  on  the  sidewalk  in  the  dead  of  night, 

(6)  the  sound  made  by  some  one  walking  through  autumn 
leaves,  (7)  the  sound  made  by  a  section  hand  driving  spikes  on 
the  railroad,  (8)  the  sound  made  by  a  large  stone  thrown  into 


DETAILS   OF  LIFE  AND  MOVEMENT.  211 

deep  water,  (9)  the  sound  of  cheering  heard  from  a  distance, 
(10)  the  sound  of  boisterous  laughter  coming  from  another 
room,  (11)  the  sound  of  wagon  wheels  going  through  a  pile  of 
loose  gravel,  (12)  the  whinnying  of  a  horse,  (13)  the  sound  of  a 
train  passing  at  full  speed,  (14)  the  sound  of  a  covey  of  partridges 
rising. 

67.  Assignments  for  Details  of  Life  and  Movement. 

A.  In  the  following  description  of  a  place,  what  details  are 
introduced  to  produce  the  effect  of  life  and  movement  ? 

On  the  coast  of  Maine,  where  many  green  islands  and 
salt  inlets  fringe  the  deep  cut  shore  line ;  where  balsam  firs 
and  bayberry  bushes  send  their  fragrance  far  seaward,  and 
song  sparrows  sing  all  day,  and  the  tide  runs  plashing  in 
and  out  among  the  weedy  ledges ;  where  cowbells  tinkle  on 
the  hills  and  herons  stand  in  the  shady  coves,  —  on  the 
lonely  coast  of  Maine  stood  a  small  gray  house  facing  the 
morning  light.  All  the  weatherbeaten  houses  of  that  region 
face  the  sea  apprehensively,  like  the  women  who  live  in 
them.  This  house  of  four  people  was  as  bleached  and  gray 
with  wind  and  rain  as  one  of  the  pasture  rocks  near  by. 
There  were  some  cinnamon  rose  bushes  under  the  window 
at  one  side  of  the  door,  and  a  stunted  lilac  at  the  other  side. 
It  was  so  early  in  the  cool  morning  that  nobody  was  astir 
but  some  shy  birds,  that  had  come  in  the  stillness  of  dawn 
to  pick  and  flatter  in  the  short  grass.  —  Sarah  Orne  Jewett. 

B.  Try  writing  a  brief  description  of  a  house,  introducing  de- 
tails that  produce  the  effect  of  life  and  movement. 

C.  In  the  following  description  of  a  person  what  details  add 
liveliness  by  indicating  movement  and  action? 

He  was  smallish  in  stature,  but  well  set  and  as  nimble  as 
a  goat ;  his  face  was  of  a  good  open  expression,  but  sunburnt 
very  dark,  and  heavily  freckled  and  pitted  with  the  small- 
pox ;   his   eyes  were   unusually  light  and  had  a  kind  of 


212  DESCRIPTION. 

dancing  madness  in  them,  that  was  both  engaging  and  alarm- 
ing ;  and  when  he  took  off  his  greatcoat,  he  laid  a  pair  of 
fine,  silver-mounted  pistols  on  the  table,  and  I  saw  that  he 
was  belted  with  a  great  .sword.  His  manners,  besides,  were 
elegant,  and  he  pledged  the  captain  handsomely.  Altogether 
I  thought  of  him,  at  the  first  sight,  that  here  was  a  man  I 
would  rather  call  my  friend  than  my  enemy. — Stevenson. 

D.    Write  a  brief  description  of  a  person  you  know,  introducing 
details  that  indicate  movement  and  action. 

Sequence  and  Grouping  of  Details. 
68.  Many  descriptions  stop  with  the  fundamental 
image,  the  most  striking  characteristic,  or  the  result 
of  a  first  observation.  It  is  not  often  necessary  to 
carry  a  description  out  to  the  minutest  details.  When 
this  is  necessary  or  desirable,  it  can  easily  be  seen  what 
the  sequence  and  grouping  of  details  should  be.  The 
fundamental  image  provides  a  place  for  all  of  the 
detaUs  that  can  be  mentioned.  They  are  suggested  by 
the  words  that  convey  the  fundamental  image ;  they 
drop  into  place  as  they  are  named.  The  numerous  details 
of  Lowell's  description  of  the  perfect  June  day  are  all  sug- 
gested by  the  word  "  rare  "  in  his  sentence,  "  And  what  is 
so  rare  as  a  day  in  June  ?  "  The  numerous  details  in 
Victor  Hugo's  description  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo  fall 
into  the  places  provided  for  them  by  the  fundamen- 
tal image  —  the  capital  letter  A  —  as  fast  as  they  are 
named.  Details  are  grouped,  and  the  groups  follow  one 
another,  therefore,  in  the  order  of  their  appearance  to  the 
observer,  those  that  appear  at  the  second  observation 
being  grouped  together,  then  those  that  appear  on  each 
subsequent  observation.      Notice  in  the   following  how, 


GROUPING   OF  DETAILS. 


213 


after  being  given  the  fundamental  image  of  two 
hundred  trees  standing  in  little  groups  or  couples,  we 
are  asked  to  make  separate  observations  first  of  a 
single  tree,  then  of  the  groups  severally. 


The  author 
names  the  object 
he  means  to  de- 
scribe. 

He  foreshad- 
ows what  he  is 
going  to  remark 
upon,  the  indi- 
viduality of  the 
trees  and  groups 
of  trees. 


He  shows  how 
they  are  ar- 
ranged, namely, 
in  groups  and 
couples;  and, 
after  picturing 
a  single  one,  he 
tells  first  about 
the  groups  — 
one  group  on 
a  little  hill,  an- 
other out  in  the 
fields,  a  third  on 
the  northwest, 
and  a  fourth  on 
the  east  —  and 
then  about  the 
couples. 


I  have  in  mind  now  a  "  sugar-bush " 
nestled  in  the  top  of  a  spur  of  the  Catskills, 
every  tree  of  which  is  known  to  me  and 
assumes  a  distinct  individuality  in  my 
thought.  I  know  the  look  and  quality  of 
the  whole  two  hundred ;  and  when  on  my 
annual  visit  to  the  old  homestead  I  find  one 
has  perished,  or  fallen  before  the  axe,  I 
feel  a  personal  loss.  They  are  all  veterans, 
and  have  yielded  up  their  life's  blood  for 
the  profit  of  two  or  three  generations.  They 
stand  in  little  groups  or  couples.  One 
stands  at  the  head  of  a  spring  run,  and  lifts 
a  large  dry  branch  high  above  the  woods, 
where  hawks  and  crows  love  to  alight. 
Half  a  dozen  are  climbing  a  little  hill ;  while 
others  stand  far  out  in  the  field  as  if  they 
had  come  out  to  get  the  sun.  A  file  of  five 
or  six  worthies  sentry  the  woods  on  the 
northwest,  and  confront  a  steep  side-hill 
where  sheep  and  cattle  graze.  An  equal 
number  crowd  up  to  the  line  on  the  east ;  and 
their  gray,  stately  trunks  are  seen  across 
meadows  or  fields  of  grain.  Then  there  is  a 
pair  of  Siamese  twins,  with  heavy,  bushy 
tops,  while  at  the  forks  of  a  wood  road  stand 
the  two  brothers,  with  their  arms  aroimd 
each  other's  neck,  and  their  bodies  in  gentle 
contact  for  a  distance  of  thirty  feet. 


214 


BE8CBIPTI0N. 


It  is  easy  to  note  the  stages  in  the  next  descrip- 
tion. The  eye  of  the  observer  follows  the  road  along 
the  ridge  to  the  church,  where  it  dwells  a  moment;  then 
it  continues  to  the  house,  where  it  stops  again ;  then  it 
takes  in  the  garden  with  the  hollyhocks  and  asters ;  and 
finally  rests  upon  the  orchard.  It  is  as  if  the  writer 
unrolled  a  map  before  the  reader,  pausing  at  four  places 
in  order  to  permit  a  longer  look  ;  it  is  like  the  lifting 
of  four  curtains  one  after  another  in  a  theatre.  The 
reader  experiences  the  pleasure  of  an  observer  before 
whom  a  fog  is  rolling  away,  revealing  at  each  stage,  as 
the  fog  recedes,  some  new  and  interesting  sight  on  which 
his  eye  may  rest. 


The  setting  for 
Miss  Dunn's 
house. 


The  front  door 
opens  into  the 
garden. 

The  garden 
leads  to  the 
orchard. 

Details  of  the 
orchard. 


The  main  road  of  the  town  traversed  a 
long  ridge  from  end  to  end ;  the  old  church 
stood  at  the  very  top,  blown  by  all  the 
winds  of  heaven,  like  a  ship  on  the  high 
seas,  and  on  the  southern  slope,  close  at  the 
roadside,  was  Miss  Dunn's  house. 

The  front  of  it  faced  the  south,  and  the 
front  door  opened  into  a  prim  little  garden, 
where  some  sheltered  hollyhocks  and  china 
asters  still  lingered;  beyond  was  an  or- 
chard, where  many  of  the  old  trees  had  died 
or  been  blown  down,  and  had  been  replaced 
by  young  ones.  The  leaves  were  falling 
fast  now,  but  nothing  held  on  better  than 
the  apple  and  lilac  leaves,  and  these  were 
growing  browner,  and  rustling  louder  when 
the  wind  blew,  day  by  day. 
—  Sarah  Orne  Jewett  :  A  New  Parish- 
ioner. 


SEQUENCE  AND   GROUPING. 


215 


In  the  following,  likewise,  the  order  is  from  the  near 
to  the  remote. 


The  approach. 
The  driveway. 
The  house. 

The  orchard. 
Stubble  fields. 
The  river. 


Half  a  mile  through  the  cool  forest,  the 
black  dirt  of  the  driveway  flying  from  Vix- 
en's hoofs,  and  there  was  the  Colfax  house 
on  the  edge  of  the  gentle  slope,  and  beyond 
it  the  orchard,  and  the  blue  grapes  and 
fields  of  yellow  stubble.  The  silver  smoke 
of  a  steamboat  hung  in  wisps  above  the 
water.  —  Churchill:   The  Crisis,  p.  65. 


69.      Assignment  in  Sequence  and  Grouping. 

In  the  following  a  large  number  of  details  are  presented. 
On  first  reading  there  seems  to  be  no  designed  order,  yet  at  the 
end  a  whole  series  of  clear  pictures  is  impressed  on  the  mind 
of  the  reader.  Supply  the  summary  in  the  margin  so  as  to  show 
the  grouping  of  details. 

There  is  nothing  that  burns  so  resolutely 
as  a  hayrick;  nothing  that  catches  fire  so 
easily.  Children  are  playing  with  matches ; 
one  holds  the  ignited  match  till  it  scorches 
the  fingers,  and  then  drops  it.  The  expir- 
ing flame  touches  three  blades  of  dry  grass, 
of  hay  fallen  from  the  rick,  these  flare  im- 
mediately ;  the  flame  runs  along  like  a  train 
of  gunpowder,  rushes  up  the  side  of  the 
rick,  singeing  it  as  a  horse's  coat  is  singed, 
takes  the  straw  of  the  thatch  which  black- 
ens into  a  hole,  cuts  its  way  through,  the 
draught  lifts  it  up  the  slope  of  the  thatch, 
and  in  five  minutes  the  rick  is  on  fire 
irrecoverably. 


216 


DESCRIPTION. 


Unless  beaten  out  at  the  first  start,  it  is 
certain  to  go  on.  A  spark  from  a  pipe, 
dropped  from  the  mouth  of  a  sleeping  man, 
will  do  it.  Once  well  alight,  and  the  en- 
gines may  come  at  full  speed,  one  five  miles, 
one  eight,  two  ten;  they  may  pump  the 
pond  dry,  and  lay  hose  to  the  distant 
brook  —  it  is  in  vain.  The  spread  of  the 
flames  may  be  arrested,  but  not  all  the  water 
that  can  be  thrown  will  put  out  the  rick. 
The  outside  of  the  rick  where  the  water 
strikes  it  turns  black,  and  dense  smoke 
arises,  but  the  inside  core  continues  to  burn 
till  the  last  piece  is  charred.  All  that  can 
be  done  is  to  hastily  cut  away  that  side  of 
the  rick  —  if  any  remains  —  yet  untouched, 
and  carry  it  bodily  away.  A  hayrick  will 
burn  for  hours,  one  huge  mass  of  concen- 
trated, glowing,  solid  fire,  not  much  flame, 
but  glowing  coals,  so  that  the  farmer  may 
fully  understand,  may  watch  and  study 
and  fully  comprehend  the  extent  of  his 
loss.  It  burns  itself  from  a  square  to  a 
dome,  and  the  red  dome  grows  gradually 
smaller  till  its  lowest  layer  of  ashes  strews 
the  ground.  It  burns  itself  as  it  were  in 
blocks :  the  rick  was  really  homogeneous ; 
it  looks  while  aglow  as  if  it  had  been 
constructed  of  large  bricks  or  blocks  of 
hay.  These  now  blackened  blocks  dry  and 
crumble  one  by  one  till  the  dome  sinks. 
Under  foot  the  earth  is  heated,  so  intense 
is  the  fire ;  no  one  can  approach,  even  on 
the  windward  side,  within  a  pole^s  length. 


SEQUENCE  AND   GROUPING.  217 


A- widening  stream  of  dense  white  smoke 
flows  away  upwards,  flecked  with  great 
sparks,  blackening  the  elms,  and  carrying 
flakes  of  burning  hay  over  outhouses,  sheds, 
and  farmsteads.  Thus,  from  the  clouds, 
as  it  seems,  drops  further  destruction. 
Nothing  in  the  line  of  the  wind  is  safe. 
Fine  impalpable  ashes  drift  and  fall  like  rain 
half  a  mile  away.  Sometimes  they  remain 
suspended  in  the  air  for  hours,  and  come 
down  presently  when  the  Are  is  out,  like 
volcanic  dust  drifting  from  the  crater. 
This  dust  lies  soft  and  silky  on  the  hand. 
By  the  burning  rick,  the  air  rushing  to  the 
furnace  roars  aloud,  coming  so  swiftly  as 
to  be  cold  ;^  on  one  side  intense  heat,  on  the 
other  cold  wind.  The  pump,  pump,  swing, 
swing  of  the  manual  engines ;  the  quick, 
short  pant  of  the  steam  fire-engine ;  the 
stream  and  hiss  of  the  water ;  shouts  and 
answers ;  gleaming  brass  helmets ;  fright- 
ened birds,  crowds  of  white  faces,  whose 
frames  are  in  shadow ;  a  red  glow  on  the 
black,  wet  mud  of  the  empty  pond ;  rosy 
light  on  the  walls  of  the  homestead,  crossed 
with  vast  magnified  shadows ;  windows 
glistening;  men  dragging  sail-like  tarpau- 
lins and  rick  cloths  to  cover  the  sheds ; 
constables  upright  and  quiet,  but  watchful, 
standing  at  intervals  to  keep  order ;  if  by 
day,  the  strangest  mixture  of  perfect  calm 
and  heated  anxiety,  the  smoke  bluish,  the 
floating  flakes  visible  as  black  specks,  the 
flames   tawny,    pigeons    fluttering    round, 


218  DESCRIPTION, 


COWS  grazing  in  idol-like  indifference  to  hu- 
man fears.     Ultimately,  rows  of  flattened 
and  roughly  circular  layers  of  blackened 
ashes  whose  traces  remain  for  months. 
—  Jefferies  :   TJie  Field-Play. 


70.  Miscellaneous  Assignments. 

A.  Write  from  actual  observation  a  description  on  one  of  the 
following  topics,  or  on  another  of  similar  character  chosen  by 
yourself :  (1)  the  river  before  six  o'clock  in  the  morning,  (2)  the 
lake  at  night,  (3)  by  the  seaside  on  a  rainy  day,  (4)  football  prac- 
tice at  dusk,  (5)  the  approach  of  fall  in  the  park,  (6)  a  blast-fur- 
nace at  night. 

B.  Are  things  placed  in  the  following  description  so  that  you 
can  make  a  ment.al  picture  ?  Try  a  rough  drawing  or  diagram  to 
indicate  the  relative  position  of  the  things  mentioned.  Where  is 
the  describer  standing  ? 

Far,  far  below  him,  down  the  wooden  steep,  shot  the 
crystal  Meramec,  chafing  over  the  shallow  gravel  beds  and 
tearing  headlong  at  the  deep  passes.  Beyond,  the  dimpled 
green  hills  rose  and  fell,  and  the  stream  ran  indigo  and 
silver.  A  hawk  soared  over  the  water,  —  the  only  living 
creature  in  all  that  wilderness. 

C.  Read  Cowper's  poem,  John  Gilpin's  Ride,  and  compare  with 
Stothard's  picture  (Figure  3).  What  moment  of  the  ride  does  the 
picture  represent  ?  From  imagination,  describe  the  looks  on  the 
faces  of  John  Gilpin's  wife  and  children. 

D.  Try  to  convey  briefly  in  writing  to  another  your  feelings 
at  some  critical  moment  —  a  time  of  great  danger,  terror,  joy, 
a  moment  when  you  received  momentous  news. 

E.  Look  at  the  picture  of  a  landscape.  Describe  the  part  of 
the  landscape  not  visible  in  the  picture — as  you  know  it  must  be 
or  ought  to  be. 


GO     eo 

n^      PS 


219 


220 


DESCRIPTION. 


F.  Describe  the  appearance  of  the  scout  in  D^taille's  L'Alerte 
(Figure  4)  on  his  way  to  carry  the  news  to  headquarters.  Do  not 
forget  movement  and  gesture. 


Figure  4. 


A    TYPE    STUDY    IN    DESCRIPTION.  221 

A  Type  Study  in  Description. 

The  following  account  of  the  battle  of  Gettysburg,  written 
by  Charles  King  {Between  the  Lines^  pp.  268-282),  has  been  pro- 
nounced by  Lord  Wolseley,  Lord  Beresford,  and  General  Fitz- 
wygram  to  be  the  "  most  perfect  picture  of  a  battle  scene  in  the 
English  language."  It  is  really  not  one  scene,  but  a  succession 
of  scenes,  some  of  which  are  minutely  described,  while  others  are 
passed  over  very  rapidly.  It  is  like  a  panorama,  one  scene  giving 
place  to  another.  The  larger  divisions  of  the  account  may  readily 
be  noticed  while  the  piece  is  being  read  the  first  time.  The  first 
two  paragraphs  get  things  ready ;  they  give  us  some  idea  of  the 
situation  before  the  battle  scenes  begin,  —  the  character  of  the  coun- 
try, outline  of  the  field,  relative  positions  of  the  combatants.  The 
third  and  fourth  paragraphs  are  occupied  with  the  scenes  about 
Custer's  column  on  its  way  to  the  Round  Tops  across  the  plateau. 
The  fifth  and  sixth  paragraphs  describe  the  scene  about  Rummel's 
barn.  Finally  comes  the  main  description,  —  the  scenes  when 
Stuart's  men  encounter  the  Union  forces  and  are  driven  back. 

It  would  be  a  good  idea  for  the  student,  after  reading  the  first 
three  paragraphs  and  before  proceeding  further,  to  try  making  a 
rough  map  showing  the  positions  of  the  Lutheran  Seminary, 
Culp's  Hill,  the  Round  Tops,  the  peach  orchard.  Cemetery  Ridge, 
the  w^ooded  slopes  at  the  north,  the  plateau  at  the  eastward,  the 
Hanover  Pike,  Wolf  Hill,  the  York  road;  then,  while  reading 
the  rest  of  the  piece,  to  make  such  corrections  in  the  map  as  seem 
necessary.  After  completing  the  reading  compare  your  map  with 
those  on  pages  109,  160,  and  165  in  Chancellorsville  and  Gettysburg 
by  A.  Doubleday  (^Campaigns  of  the  Civil  War),  and  for  the 
benefit  of  one  about  to  read  King's  description  write  a  brief 
paragraph  giving  the  relative  position  of  the  places  named  above. 
What  figure  would  give  a  comprehensive  outline  of  the  whole 
field? 

The  Battle  of  Gettysburg. 

[1]  The  whole  brigade  seemed  to  feel  that  it  must  do  its 
best  to  show  Major  Kearny  the  pleasure  his  coming  afforded 


222  DESCRIPTION. 

every  man.  They  all  knew  how  he  had  never  ceased  his 
importunities  to  be  sent  to  the  front  until  the  order  was 
granted,  and  here  he  was  just  in  time  for  Gettysburg. 

[2]  Two  anxious  days  had  passed  since  Buford,  far  over 
on  the  left,  had  discovered  the  advancing  infantry  of  Petti- 
grew  and  Archer;  and,  true  to  his  instincts,  had  rushed 
straight  at  the  throat  of  his  foe  and  striven  to  hold  and  pin 
him  there,  west  of  the  Lutheran  Seminary,  until  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac  could  come  up  and  man  that  priceless  ridge 
below  the  quaint  old  Pennsylvania  town.  Now  the  morning 
of  the  3d  had  come  —  the  climax  of  it  all.  In  vain  had 
Ewell  forced  his  columns  —  Jackson's  old  men — to  the  as- 
sault of  the  boulder-strewn  slopes  of  Gulp's  Hill.  In  vain 
had  Hood's  Texans  hurled  their  charging  lines  on  the  Eound 
Tops  at  the  southern  flank.  The  Union  ranks  had  reeled 
and  staggered  under  the  repeated  onsets ;  the  Union  colors 
had  been  steadily  beaten  back  from  the  Pike,  and  that  famous 
peach  orchard  at  the  angle  of  Sickles's  front ;  but  all  the 
crest  of  Cemetery  Ridge  was  crowned  with  black-mouthed 
batteries,  and  panting  but  determined  battalions  in  the  grimy 
blue;  all  the  curving,  wooded  slopes  at  the  north  were 
watched  by  keen-eyed  northern  riflemen ;  all  the  broad 
plateau  to  the  eastward,  far  over  as  Westminster,  was  pow- 
dered with  the  dust  of  tramping  columns,  and  glistening 
with  sunshine  reflected  from  the  canvas  covers  of  countless 
wagons.  Here,  too,  were  parked  the  reserve  batteries ;  here, 
too,  the  ammunition  trains  and  the  scores  of  ambulances; 
and  all  the  beautiful,  undulating,  fertile  farm  land  between 
them  and  the  north  lay  open  to  the  advance  of  hostile  cavalry, 
but  for  the  covering  skirmish  lines  of  the  Second  Division; 
and  of  these  the  old  New  Jersey  was  farthest  to  the  front, 
crouching  along  the  rail  fence  by  the  roadside  and  watching 
with  eager  eyes  the  fringe  of  wood  on  yonder  opposite  slope. 
"  Stuart  is  back  !  "  "  Stuart  has  rejoined  Lee  !  "     These  were 


A    TYPE  STUDY  IN  DESCRIPTION,  223 

the  words  that  passed  from  mouth  to  mouth  that  gorgeous 
July  morning.  Now  look  out  for  squalls !  Just  at  noon, 
when  men  and  horses  were  gazing  longingly  at  the  forest 
shades  along  the  ridges,  and  seeking  shelter  from  the  fierce 
rays  of  the  July  sun,  there  came  the  staff  officer  galloping 
over  from  Meade's  headquarters  with  the  stirring  message, 
"  Look  well  to  your  front !  Howard  reports  that  he  can  see 
from  Cemetery  Hill  great  masses  of  cavalry  marching  out 
north  of  you.  They  must  be  forming  behind  those  ridges 
now." 

[3]  All  the  long,  hot  morning  has  been  spent  in  compar- 
ative quiet.  Custer  and  his  "  Wolverines  "  have  scouted  all 
the  roads  for  a  mile  or  more  above  the  Hanover  Pike.  There 
are  skirmishers  in  gray  out  beyond  Wolf  Hill,  where  Mcintosh 
and  his  dragoons  joined  the  extreme  right  of  Howard's  corps. 
There  are  little  scouting  parties  of  Confederate  horse  twin- 
kling through  the  woods  and  farm  enclosures  up  towards  the 
York  road.  But  just  at  one  o'clock  Custer  with  his  fine 
brigade  has  started  away  under  orders  to  march  to  the  Round 
Tops  across  the  intervening  plateau  whereon  are  all  those 
dust-covered  reserve  batteries,  ammunition  wagons,  and 
trains.  He  moves  reluctantly,  and  with  a  shake  of  his  curly 
head  and  a  lingering  glance  over  his  shoulder  at  the  wooded 
crest  behind  those  substantial  farm  buildings  a  mile  away 
northward  across  the  open  fields.  "  You  may  be  attacked  any 
minute,"  he  says  to  the  brigade  commander.  "  Those  woods 
are  full  of  'em  by  this  time."  And  now,  just  as  Kearny 
is  shaking  hands  with  his  comrades,  there  bursts  upon  the 
startled  ear  the  roar  of  the  fierce  cannonade  that  ushers  in 
the  afternoon  of  the  3d  of  July  —  a  roar  that  speedily  swells 
into  the  deafening  thunder  of  the  most  stupendous  duel  of 
batteries  ever  heard  on  this  continent.  It  is  the  two  hours' 
prelude  to  Pickett's  memorable  and  heroic  assault,  and  for  a 
few  minutes  the  cavalry  out  on  the  distant  flank  can  only 


224  DESCRIPTION. 

look  on  and  listen,  awed  by  the  magnificence  of  the  sight 
and  sound.  The  western  edge  of  the  plateau,  three  miles  or 
more  away,  is  presently  shrouded  in  a  cloud  of  sulphur  smoke 
which,  perpetually  being  rent  and  torn  by  flashing  shells, 
closes  promptly  over  the  gaps  and  only  gains  in  density. 
Then  comes  the  call  to  action  on  the  right.  ''  Skirmishers 
forward!''  ring  the  trumpets,  and  Dayton  clasps  for  an  in- 
stant Kearny's  hand,  then  draws  his  sabre  and  gallops  over 
to  his  advancing  squadron.  The  brigadier  has  determined 
not  to  await  attack,  but  to  see  for  himself  what  is  to  be  found 
along  those  forest-fringed  heights  across  the  level  field. 
Whoever  occupies  them  commands  a  view  of  the  country  for 
miles  to  the  south,  and  takes  "  in  "reverse  "  the  line  of  battle  of 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  and  its  parks  of  reserve  batteries 
and  supplies.  W^^-t  if  Stuart  should  already  be  there  ? 
What  if  even  now,  screened  by  those  woods,  he  is  forming 
his  charging  columns  and  preparing  to  come  sweeping  down 
on  these  slender  lines,  brush  them  to  either  side,  and  then 
go  careering  madly  on,  playing  havoc  among  those  defence- 
less trains  ?  Who  can  doubt  the  effect  of  such  a  dash  when 
coupled  with  the  grand  assault  now  beginning  from  the 
west  ?  Who  can  say  where  ruin  and  disaster  will  be  checked 
should  this  indeed  prove  to  be  his  plan  ? 

[4]  Kearny  has  ridden  back  towards  the  Pike  to  rejoin 
the  division  commander,  who  comes  spurring  up  with  an 
anxious  look  overspreading  his  soldierly,  bearded  face.  To- 
gether they  rein  in  on  a  little  knoll  at  the  southeastern  angle. 
Behind  them  in  the  highway  Pennington's  rifled  guns  are 
still  unlimbered,  for  Custer's  column  is  not  yet  clear  of  the 
field,  and  he  does  not  move  until  his  cavalry  comrades  are 
all  on  their  way .  In  front  is  Chester's  section,  the  cannoneers 
lying  or  squatting  about  the  guns,  the  drivers  dismounted 
and  resting  near  their  drooping  horses.  To  the  left,  drawn 
up  in  close  column  of  squadrons,  are  battalions  of  Union 


A    TYPE  STUDY  IN  DESCRIPTION.  225 

horse  almost  grilling  under  the  blazing  sunshine ;  but  the 
eyes  of  all  men  follow  the  movements  of  that  long  skirmish 
line  swinging  boldly  out  across  the  farm  fields  towards  those 
solid  looking  buildings  of  the  thriving  Pennsylvania  hus- 
bandman. '^  RummePs  barn  "  becomes  the  object  of  an  in- 
terest it  never  knew  before. 

[5]  Suddenly  up  from  the  earth  spring  the  men  at  the 
guns.  A  murmur  of  excitement  flies  along  the  mounted 
ranks.  "Look  at 'em!"  "Yonder  they  come!"  are  the  cries, 
and  all  in  an  instant,  out  from  behind  the  farm  buildings, 
out  from  the  big,  substantial  barn,  running  into  line,  agile 
as  monkeys,  come  scores  of  skirmishers  in  gray  rushing  for 
the  low  stone  wall.  In  an  instant  both  lines  have  opened 
fire,  and  the  cavalry  combat  at  the  right  flank  has  begun. 

[6]  "  Ha,  I  thought  so !  "  exclaims  the  general.  "  Look 
at  the  guns  !  Stuart  himself,  as  a  matter  of  course."  And 
out  on  the  heights  in  the  rear  of  the  farm  buildings  — 
those  coveted  heights  from  which  the  whole  field  can  be 
so  plainly  seen  —  two  horse  batteries  trot  briskly  into  view 
from  the  leafy  shelter  in  which  they  have  been  lurking,  and 
in  an  instant  are  whirling  around  into  position.  Before  a 
shot  can  be  rammed  home,  Chester  and  Pennington  have 
saluted  the  newcomers,  and  with  spiteful  shriek  the  shells 
go  whizzing  over  the  heads  of  the  intervening  skirmishers, 
and  the  batteries  have  joined  in  the  general  uproar.  Just 
about  the  time  when  the  Union  guns  along  Cemetery  Ridge 
are  cooling  down  for  the  reception  of  the  assault  so  surely 
coming,  far  out  here  on  the  right  flank  their  comrades  with 
the  cavalry  brigades  have  taken  up  the  chorus,  and  in  a 
moment  every  gun  is  in  full  song.  The  Rummel  barn  is 
jetting  fire-flash  and  smoke ;  it  is  packed  with  sharp-shooters, 
before  whose  sheltered  aim  many  a  gallant  fellow  of  the 
Jersey  regiment  is  going  down.  Kearny  feels  a  sudden 
sense  of  keen  anxiety  for  Dayton,  and  longs  to  be  allowed 


226  DESCRIPTION. 

to  dash  out  to  the  front,  but  his  general  knows  a  more  effec- 
tive plan.  A  word  to  the  young  oflScer  commanding  the 
advanced  guns,  and  the  muzzles  are  depressed,  the  trails 
whipped  suddenly  to  a  slight  change  of  direction,  and  in  the 
next  instant  the  shells  are  bursting  under  the  barn  roof 
itself,  ripping  and  tearing  the  brittle  woodwork,  firing 
the  haystacks,  and  emptying  it  of  its  human  contents 
in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye.  The  whole  brigade  sets  up  a 
cheer  and  laugh  as  the  discomfited  sharp-shooters  come 
tumbling  out,  and,  bending  almost  double,  scurry  for  the 
shelter  of  the  low  stone  wall.  Another  and  a  louder  cheer 
bursts  forth  when,  with  a  blare  of  trumpets,  Custer,  "ever 
ready  for  a  fight,"  comes  galloping  back  at  the  head  of  his 
gallant  Michigan  brigade  and  ploys  his  excited  troopers 
into  close  column  of  squadrons,  ready  for  anything  as  their 
sabres  flash  in  air.  One  regiment  he  hurriedly  orders  in, 
dismounted,  to  cover  the  left  of  his  column ;  another  to  aid 
the  thinned  and  bleeding  rank  of  Jerseymen;  a  third,  in 
saddle,  dashes  for  the  stone  wall  along  the  little  stream  at 
the  western  edge,  just  in  time  to  meet  there  the  flower 
of  Virginia's  cavalry  and  be  borne  back  in  the  rush.  There 
are  ten  minutes  of  wild  excitement  and  stirring  battle-cries 
—  ten  minutes  of  rally  and  countercharge,  in  which  the 
Virginians  in  turn  are  outnumbered  and  hurled  back.  A 
brief  breathing-spell  for  the  horsemen  while  the  gunners 
concentrate  their  fire  on  the  batteries  on  the  Cress  ridge, 
and  then  —  then  comes  the  glorious  episode  of  a  never-to- 
be-forgotten  day. 

[7]  Just  as  Pickett's  devoted  lines  are  breasting  the  slopes 
for  the  final  and  desperate  attempt  to  pierce  the  Union  cen- 
tre, Cavalier  Stuart,  with  all  his  chivalry  at  his  back  —  six 
thousand  glittering  sabres  at  his  beck  and  call  —  darts  in  to 
carry  out  his  share  of  the  well-planned  combination.  Watch- 
ing from  his  leafy  covert  at  the  summit  back  of  Rummel's 


A    TYPE  STUDY  IN  DESCRIPTION.  227 

house,  he  hears  the  signal  guns  of  the  Washington  Artillery- 
far  across  the  plateau ;  he  notes  the  mass  of  trains  and  wagons 
down  towards  the  south,  shielded  only  by  that  thinned  and 
travel-worn  division  drawn  up  in  front  of  the  Hanover  Pike. 
The  time  to  strike  has  come,  and,  like  poised  falcon,  his  com- 
pact columns  wait  ready  for  the  swoop.  Behind  him,  in  the 
open  fields  of  the  Stalsmith  farm,  are  the  brigades  of  Hamp- 
ton and  Fitz-Hugh  Lee.  No  leader  on  earth  need  seek  for 
braver  men  or  keener  riders.  There  they  sit  in  saddle,  eager 
for  the  word  —  eager  for  their  great  part  in  the  drama  of  the 
day ; —  and  now  it  comes. 

[8]  Kearny  has  just  galloped  back  to  his  general's  side, 
his  eyes  flashing  with  excitement,  the  sweat  pouring  down 
from  his  forehead,  panting  with  his  exertions  in  rallying 
the  scattered  troopers  on  the  left.  Another  regiment  of  the 
Michigan  brigade  has  just  trotted  into  close  column  under 
Custer's  eye.  The  Jerseymen  and  Pennsylvanians  are  slowly 
retiring,  with  emptied  cartridge-boxes,  to  where  their  horses 
await  them  in  the  woods  by  the  "  Low  Dutch  "  road  at  the 
eastern  verge,  leaving  the  "  Wolverines  "  to  oppose  the  gray 
skirmishers  along  the  little  stream  and  among  the  farm 
buildings  at  Rummel's,  when,  at  the  very  northern  edge  of 
the  open  fields  —  just  at  a  gap  in  the  forest-covered  ridge  — 
there  rides  into  view  a  pageant  at  sight  of  which  a  murmur 
of  admiration  bursts  from  the  Union  ranks.  Sweeping  out 
upon  the  gentle  slope,  with  fluttering  guidons  and  waving 
plumes  overhead,  with  sabres  at  the  carry  glistening  in  the 
unclouded  sunshine,  moving  with  stately  ease  and  delibera- 
tion, forming  squadron  front  as  soon  as  the  columns  clear 
the  gap  and  reach  the  broad  expanse  beyond,  then  closing 
in  mass  as  they  steadily  advance,  side  by  side  come  the  fa- 
mous troopers  of  Wade  Hampton  and  Fitz-Hugh  Lee.  Here 
are  the  men  who  have  borne  the  flags  of  the  Carolinas  and 
Virginia  to  the  very  borders  of  the  Susquehanna,  and  made 


228  DESCRIPTION. 

them  famous  on  a  score  of  fields.  Here  are  the  raiders  who 
have  followed  Stuart  in  many  a  dash  around  our  jaded  flanks 
and  rear.  Watch  them  as  squadron  after  squadron  gains  its 
front  and  distance  at  the  trot.  Mark  the  steadiness  and  pre- 
cision of  every  move.  Note  that  slow,  stately  half-wheel  to 
their  right  as  they  descend  the  slope.  That  means  they  are 
coming  square  at  Chester's  guns,  now  just  one  mile  away. 

•[9]  See  the  rush  and  scurry  among  the  dismounted  skir- 
mishers midway  up  the  field !  Out  of  the  way  with  you, 
lads !  Run  for  your  horses,  every  man  of  you !  Never  heed 
those  peppering  riflemen  in  the  barnyard  now.  Here  come 
foemen  worthy  of  your  steel,  and  all  the  Union  cavalry  is 
athrill  with  excitement  and  enthusiasm.  ''  Mount !  mount !  " 
are  the  shouted  orders.  "  Steady,  now,  men !  "  the  caution 
from  many  a  squadron  leader  as  the  very  horses  seem  to 
plunge  and  tug  at  the  bits  as  though  eager  for  the  fray. 
Look  at  Custer,  his  curls  floating  in  the  rising  breeze,  his 
eyes  kindling  like  coals  of  fire,  his  sinewy  hand  gripping 
the  sabre-hilt,  trotting  up  and  down  in  front  of  his  heart- 
throbbing  lines,  giving  quick,  terse  words  of  instruction  and 
warning.  Bang!  bang!  go  Chester's  guns,  sending  their 
whirring  compliments  to  the  massive  gray  columns  still 
placidly  advancing  at  the  walk ;  and  a  cheer  of  exultation, 
not  unmingled  with  low  murmurs  of  soldierly  pity,  greets 
the  sight  of  the  exploding  shells  square  in  the  midst  of 
the  beautiful  division.  But  not  one  whit  do  they  swerve  or 
slacken.  On  still  steadily  they  come,  and  now  the  field  in 
front  is  cleared ;  and  now  all  the  guns  are  hurling  shell  and 
case-shot ;  and  now  the  slow,  stately  advance  becomes  sud- 
denly shimmering  and  tremulous  to  the  eye ;  it  only  means 
that  the  pace  has  been  quickened  to  the  trot.  A  quarter 
mile  at  that  gait,  another  at  the  gallop,  and  they  will  be 
here. 

[10]  Now  for  our  side  !     "  Meet  them,  Mcintosh  !     Meet 


A    TYPE  STUDY  IN  DESCRIPTION  229 

them,  Custer ! "  are  the  general's  quick  orders ;  '^  but  let 
them  get  well  down  this  way.  Do  not  charge  until  they 
are  in  line  with  the  woods;  then  we've  got  'em  on  both 
flanks,  too."  Capital  plan  that.  Lining  the  fence  by  the 
roadside  on  the  east  are  hundreds  of  kneeling  troopers  ready 
to  open  fire  as  the  columns  come  sweeping  by.  Over  on  the 
west  side,  too,  along  the  little  run,  are  other  skirmishers  all 
ready  for  the  coming  host.  Possibly  Stuart  does  not  see 
this  —  possibly  does  not  care.  Heedless  of  bursting  shell 
and  hissing  lead ;  silent,  stern,  inflexible,  in  exquisite  order 
and  perfect  alignment,  the  Southern  horse  sweep  grandly 
down  the  field.  "  Keep  to  your  sabres,  men  ! ''  is  the  order 
passed  from  rank  to  rank.  Brandy  Station,  Aldie,  and  Up- 
perville  have  taught  them  the  lesson  that  the  revolver  is 
no  weapon  to  cope  with  the  blade  wielded  by  brawny  North- 
ern arms.  On  they  come,  the  ground  trembling  and  rum- 
bling under  the  quickening  tread  of  these  thousands  of 
hoofs.  Listen  !  "  The  gallop ! "  Now,  Michigan !  Now, 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania!  tighten  your  sabre-knots; 
take  good  grip ;  touch  boot  to  the  centre ;  keep  your  dress ; 
eyes  straight  to  the  front,  and  forward ! 

[11]  "Major  Kearny,  gallop  round  to  the New  Jer- 
sey. Mount  every  man  you  can  find,  and  order  a  charge  on 
their  left  flank  the  instant  we  check  them  here !  Give  'em 
canister  now,  Mr.  Chester ! "  These  are  the  last  orders 
Kearny  gets  from  his  general  this  day  of  days.  Putting 
spurs  to  his  horse,  he  darts  around  the  rear  of  Chester's 
guns  just  as  "the  advance"  is  ringing  from  the  trumpets; 
clears  the  front  of  the  squadrons  issuing  from  the  woods  at 
rapid  trot,  and,  glancing  over  his  shoulder,  sees  the  rush  of 
the  "  Wolverines "  up  the  field ;  sees  Custer,  four  lengths 
ahead,  darting  straight  at  the  plunging  host  in  gray ;  hears 
the  sudden  burst  of  terrific  yells  with  which  the  men  of 
Stuart  welcome  the  signal,  "  Charge ! "  hears   the  fearful 


230  DESCRIPTION. 

crash  with  which  the  heads  of  columns  come  together; 
marks  the  sudden  silence  of  the  cannon,  useless  now  when 
friend  and  foe  are  mingled  in  death-grapple  at  the  front, 
and  with  a  din  of  savage  war-cries,  orders,  shouts,  shots, 
clashing  sabres,  and  crunching  hoofs  ringing  in  his  ears,  he 
speeds  on  his  way  to  the  fence  and  the  wood  road,  wihl 
with  eagerness  to  rally  his  old  comrades  and  lead  them  in. 

[12]  Back  among  the  trees  to  the  right,  whither  the  led 
horses  had  been  conducted  out  of  range,  "  there  is  mounting 
in  hot  haste,"  and  thither  gallops  the  young  major,  flashing 
his  sabre  in  air,  and  calling  to  his  old  comrades  to  form 
their  line.  Rapidly  he  rides  along  the  fence.  "  Mount, 
men,  mount !  Quick,  Dayton  !  Quick,  Hart !  "  he  shouts. 
^'  Form  your  men,  and  get  in  here  on  the  edge  of  the  field ! " 
But  all  along  that  fragile  barrier  are  scores  of  troopers, 
kneeling  or  lying  prone,  blazing  away  at  the  dense,  dust- 
covered,  struggling  mass  of  gray  horsemen  only  three  hun- 
dred yards  away;  and  in  the  thunderous  din  no  voice  is 
audible  beyond  a  rod  or  two.  Dayton  spurs  up  and  down 
in  the  roadway  until  he  has  driven  a  dozen  men  back  in 
search  of  their  steeds.  Hart  gallops  southward  to  where 
his  squadron,  mounted,  is  guarding  the  led  horses  in  among 
the  trees.  Half  a  dozen  Pennsylvanians,  officers  and  men, 
come  trotting  up  to  Kearny,  eager  to  be  "  counted  in "  if 
there  is  to  be  a  charge;  other  troopers  tear  down  a  panel  or 
two  of  fence,  that  the  forming  squadrons  may  get  in  from 
the  dusty  road.  Out  in  the  broad  fallow  field  the  uproar  of 
the  fierce  combat  swells  and  rages,  and  though  the  long, 
compact  columns  are  still  pushing  on,  the  headlong  speed 
of  the  charge  is  gone,  the  leading  squadrons  are  swallowed 
up  in  cheering  clouds  of  swordsmen  dressed  in  the  Union 
blue.  The  Southern  leaders  are  hewing  their  way,  fighting 
like  tigers  and  yelling  command  and  encouragement  to  their 
men,  but  those  "  Wolverines "  of  Custer  have  barred  the 


A    TYPE  STUDY  IN  DESCRIPTION.  231 

path ;  scores  of  troopers  from  all  over  the  field  are  bearing 
down  on  front  and  flanks ;  Chester's  guns  have  torn  fearful 
rents  in  their  now  beleaguered  column ;  hundreds  of  steeds 
are  rolling  in  agony  on  the  turf,  and  hundreds  of  riders  are 
bleeding  and  thrown.  Eager  troopers  dash  from  their  places 
in  the  rearward  lines,  and  rush  yelling  to  join  the  combat 
at  the  front.  Hampton's  battle-flag  is  waved  on  high  and 
spurred  through  the  mass  of  swaying  chargers  to  animate 
the  Carolinians  to  renewed  effort ;  but  it  is  all  practically 
unavailing;  the  impetus  of  the  attack  is  done,  and  now, 
though  outnumbering  the  horsemen  swarming  upon  them 
from  every  side,  Lee  and  Hampton  are  almost  helpless. 
Relying  on  dash,  weight,  and  inertia  to  sweep  everything  be- 
fore them,  the  Southern  leaders  have  failed  to  provide  for 
just  this  possibility.  Now  their  gallant  men  are  jammed 
together  in  one  great,  surging  mass;  only  those  on  the 
flanks  or  front  can  use  sabre  or  pistol ;  the  rest  are  useless 
as  so  many  sheep.  In  vain  their  officers  shout  hoarse  com- 
mands to  open  out,  to  cut  their  way  to  right  or  left.  '  From 
east  and  west  every  instant  fresh  parties  of  Union  horse 
come  dashing  in  with  new  shock  and  impetus,  hurling  men 
from  the  saddle,  adding  to  the  clamor  and  confusion,  utterly 
blocking  every  attempt  of  the  gray  troopers  to  wheel  out- 
ward and  hew  a  path  to  the  relief  of  their  struggling  com- 
rades in  the  foremost  lines.  Kearny  notes  it  all  with  mad 
exultation;  Dayton's  half-score  of  men  and  the  Pennsylvania 
troopers  are  hurriedly  ranging  themselves  in  rank,  when 
through  the  dust-cloud  they  catch  sight  of  the  battle-flag 
of  Hampton's  struggling  forward  in  the  midst  of  the  Con- 
federate column.  "  There's  our  point ! "  he  shouts,  as  with 
flashing  eyes  he  turns  to  the  little  troop.  ''  Come  on,  men  !  " 
And,  with  Dayton  at  his  side  and  the  cheering  line  of  horse- 
men at  his  back,  down  he  goes  in  headlong  dash  upon  the 
surging  flank.     Another  instant  and,  with  crash  and  shock 


232  DESCRIPTION. 

that  hurls  many  a  rider  from  the  saddle  among  the  grind- 
ing hoofs  below  and  overthrows  a  dozen  plunging  steeds, 
Kearny  and  his  swordsmen  are  hewing  their  way  into  the 
very  heart  of  Hampton's  legion  and  making  straight  for  the 
flag.  There  is  a  moment  of  fierce,  thrilling  battle,  of  vehe- 
ment struggling,  of  yells  and  curses  and  resounding  blows 
and  clashing  steel  and  sputtering  pistol  shots  ;  a  moment  of 
mad  excitement  wherein  he  sees,  but  for  a  second  of  time, 
bearded,  grimy,  sweat-covered  faces,  lit  up  with  battle-fire, 
that  live  in  his  memory  for  years  ;  a  moment  when  every 
sense  seems  intensified  and  every  nerve  and  siuew  braced 
to  fivefold  force,  and  in  the  midst  of  it  all,  just  as  he  spurs 
his  charger  to  the  standard-bearer's  side  and  his  sabre  is 
raised  to  cut  him  down,  and  all  around  him  is  one  wild  yell 
and  clamor,  there  springs  between  him  and  his  prize  a  face 
and  form  he  well  remembers ;  a  bearded  knight  in  gray  and 
gold,  whose  gleaming  steel  dashes  to  one  side  the  blow  he 
aims  at  the  standard-bearer's  skull,  and  before  he  can  parry 
in  return  has  gashed  his  cheek  from  ear  to  chin.  Kearny 
reels  from  the  force  of  the  blow,  but  firmly  keeps  his  seat ; 
and  though  he  is  half  stunned,  his  practised  hand  whirls 
his  blade  to  the  point,  and  sends  it  straight  at  the  bared 
and  brawny  throat  before  him.  An  agile  twist  is  all  that 
saves  the  jugular ;  but  it  is  a  well-nigh  fatal  move,  unbal- 
ancing the  horseman  just  as  he  is  struck  in  flank  by  a  stal- 
wart sergeant  of  Kearny's  little  troop,  and  down  he  goes, 
horse  and  rider  crashing  to  earth  in  the  centre  of  the  strug- 
gling mass.  Almost  at  this  supreme  moment,  too,  Kearny's 
buzzing  ears  are  conscious  of  a  tremendous  cheer  and  thun- 
dering shock  behind  him.  He  hears  Dayton's  exultant  yell 
of  welcome  to  Hart  and  his  charging  squadron,  and  then  he 
hardly  knows  what  happens.  He  feels  that  the  crowded 
mass  about  him  is  disintegrating,  slipping  away,  edging 
back  up  the  field.     He  finds  that  he  is  borne  helplessly 


A    TYPE  STUDY  IN  DESCRIPTION,  233 

with  them.  He  is  dizzy,  faint,  bleeding,  and  exhausted, 
and  can  only  drift  along ;  and  he  hardly  knows  how  to  ac- 
count for  it  when,  a  few  minutes  later,  he  is  leaning  breath- 
less, against  the  shoulder  of  his  panting  horse,  and  Dayton, 
panting  too,  is  at  his  side  bathing  and  bandaging  his  muti- 
lated face. 

"  Have  we  driven  them  ?  "  he  gasps. 

"  Driven  them  ?  Look  ! ''  is  the  answer  as  Dayton  points 
exultingly  up  the  field.  A  cloud  of  dust  is  settling  back  to 
earth,  shrouding  many  a  group  of  prostrate,  stiffening,  or 
struggling  men  and  horses  ;  but  surging  up  the  slopes  down 
which  they  swept  so  gallantly  but  a  little  time  before,*goes 
a  disordered  mass  of  fugitives,  with  Custer  and  Mcintosh, 
Michigan,  Pennsylvania,  and  Jersey  cheering,  hacking,  hew- 
ing at  their  backs.  The  great  cavalry  fight  is  over,  and 
Stuart  is  foiled.  Even  as  Pickett's  torn  and  cruelly  shattered 
lines  are  drifting  back  from  the  assault  on  Hancock's  stub- 
born front,  their  daring  brethren  were  breaking  before  the 
sabres  of  Gregg's  division  —  they  had  been  sacrificed  in  a 
vain  attempt. 

G.  What  point  of  view  is  indicated  or  implied  for  each  of  the 
scenes  in  the  description  given  above?  Mark  every  change  in  the 
point  of  view.  How  is  the  reader  made  aware  of  each  change? 
Has  Kearny  anything  to  do  with  the  point  of  view  ? 

H.  There  is  one  instance  of  description  by  indication  of  effects 
in  paragraph  3,  one  at  the  close  of  paragraph  8,  one  in  9,  and  several 
in  paragraph  12.     Find  them  all. 

I.  Notice  the  verbs  in  paragraphs  6  and  12.  Mark  those  that 
seem  to  you  to  produce  the  most  vivid  images. 

J.    Note  the  order  of  observation  in  paragraphs  5  and  8. 

K.  What  figure  of  speech  is  employed  to  vivify  the  description 
in  paragraph  2,  in  3,  in  7  ? 

L.    Note  the  character  of  the  adjectives  in  paragraphs  9  and  10. 


234  DESCRIPTION. 

M.  Describe  your  mental  picture  of  Custer  as  gained  from  para- 
graph 9.  What  details  appear  in  your  picture  besides  those  men- 
tioned ? 

N.  Notice  to  what  extent  images  of  sounds  are  employed  in 
the  description.     Are  the  sounds  merely  mentioned? 

0.  Read  the  following  description  by  A.  Doubleday  (Chancel- 
lorsville  and  Gettysburg,  pp.  199-202).  It  deals  with  the  same  sec- 
tion of  the  battle  that  is  described  above  by  King.  What  is  the 
difference  between  the  two  descriptions  in  method  and  spirit? 
What  is  the  difference  in  purpose  ? 

When  Lee  learned  that  Johnson  had  yielded  his  position 
on  th%  right,  and  therefore  conld  not  cooperate  with  Pickett's 
advance,  he  sent  Stuart's  cavalry  around  to  accomplish  the 
same  object  by  attacking  the  right  and  rear  of  our  army. 
Howard  saw  the  Confederate  cavalry  moving  off  in  that 
direction,  and  David  McM.  Gregg,  whose  division  was  near 
White's  Creek  where  it  crosses  the  Baltimore  Pike,  received 
orders  about  noon  to  guard  Slocum's  right  and  rear. 

Custer  had  already  been  contending  with  his  brigade 
against  portions  of  the  enemy's  force  in  that  direction,  when 
Gregg  sent  forward  Mcintosh's  brigade  to  relieve  him,  and 
followed  soon  after  with  J.  Irving  Gregg's  brigade.  Custer 
was  under  orders  to  join  Kilpatrick's  command,  to  which  he 
belonged,  but  the  exigencies  of  the  battle  soon  forced  Gregg 
to  detain  him.  Mcintosh,  having  taken  the  place  of  Custer, 
pushed  forward  to  develop  the  enemy's  line,  which  he  found 
very  strongly  posted,  the  artillery  being  on  a  commanding 
ridge  which  overlooked  the  whole  country,  and  covered  by 
dismounted  cavalry  in  woods,  buildings,  and  behind  fences 
below.  Mcintosh  became  warmly  engaged  and  sent  back 
for  Randol's  battery  to  act  against  the  Confederate  guns  on 
the  crest,  and  drive  the  enemy  out  of  the  buildings.  The 
guns  above  were  silenced  by  Pennington's  and  Randol's 
batteries,  and  the  force  below  driven  out  of  the  houses  by 


A    TYPE  STUDY  IN  DESCRIPTION.  235 

Lieutenant  Chester's  section  of  the  latter.  The  buildings 
and  fences  were  then  occupied  by  our  troops.  The  enemy 
attempted  to  regain  them  by  a  charge  against  Mcintosh's 
right  flank,  but  were  repulsed.  In  the  meantime  Gregg 
came  up  with  the  other  brigade,  and  assumed  command  of 
the  field.  The  battle  now  became  warm,  for  W.  H.  F.  Lee's 
brigade,  under  Chambliss,  advanced  to  support  the  skirmish 
line,  and  the  First  New  Jersey,  being  out  of  ammunition, 
was  charged  and  routed  by  the  first  Virginia.  The  Seventh 
Michigan,  a  new  regiment  which  came  up  to  support  it,  was 
also  driven  in ;  for  the  enemy's  dismounted  line  reenf orced  the 
First  Virginia.  The  latter  regiment,  which  had  held  on  with 
desperate  tenacity,  although  attacked  on  both  flanks,  was  at 
last  compelled  to  fall  back  by  an  attack  made  by  part  of  the 
Fifth  Michigan.  The  contending  forces  were  now  pretty 
well  exhausted  when,  to  the  dismay  of  our  men,  a  fresh 
brigade  under  Wade  Hampton,  which  Stuart  had  kept  in 
reserve,  made  its  appearance,  and  new  and  desperate  exer- 
tions were  required  to  stem  its  progress.  There  was  little 
time  to  act,  but  every  sabre  that  could  be  brought  forward 
was  used.  As  Hampton  came  on,  our  artillery  under 
Pennington  and  E-andol  made  terrible  gaps  in  his  ranks. 
Chester's  section  kept  firing  canister  until  the  Confederates 
were  within  fifty  yards  of  him.  The  enemy  were  tempo- 
rarily stopped  by  a  desperate  charge  on  their  flank,  made  by 
only  sixteen  men  of  the  Third  Pennsylvania  Cavalry,  under 
Captains  Treichel  and  Rogers,  accompanied  by  Captain  New- 
hall  of  Mcintosh's  staff.  This  little  band  of  heroes  were 
nearly  all  disabled  or  killed,  but  they  succeeded  in  delaying 
the  enemy,  already  shattered  by  the  canister  from  Chester's 
guns,  until  Custer  was  able  to  bring  up  the  First  Michigan 
and  lead  them  to  the  charge,  shouting,  "  Come  on,  you  Wol- 
verines!" Every  available  sabre  was  thrown  in.  General 
Mcintosh  and  his  staff  and  orderlies  charged  into  the  melee  as 


236  DESCRIPTION, 

individuals.  Hampton  and  Fitz-Hiigh  Lee  headed  the  enemy, 
and  Custer  our  troops.  Lieutenant  Colonel  W.  Brook-Rawle, 
the  historian  of  the  conflict,  who  was  present,  says,  "  For 
minutes,  which  seemed  like  hours,  amid  the  clashing  of  the 
sabres,  the  rattle  of  the  small  arms,  the  frenzied  imprecations, 
the  demands  to  surrender,  the  undaunted  replies,  and  the 
appeals  for  mercy,  the  Confederate  column  stood  its  ground." 
A  fresh  squadron  was  brought  up  under  Captain  Hart  of  the 
First  New  Jersey,  and  the  enemy  at  last  gave  way  and  re- 
tired. Both  sides  still  confronted  each  other,  but  the  battle 
was  over,  for  Pickett's  charge  had  failed,  and  there  was  no 
longer  any  object  in  continuing  the  contest. 

Stuart  was  undoubtedly  baflSed  and  the  object  of  his  ex- 
pedition frustrated ;  yet  he  stated  in  his  official  report  that 
he  was  in  a  position  to  intercept  the  Union  retreat  in  case 
Pickett  had  been  successful.  At  night  he  retreated  to  regain 
his  communications  with  Ewell's  left. 

This  battle,  being  off  the  official  maps,  has  hardly  been 
alluded  to  in  the  various  histories  which  have  been  written ; 
but  its  results  were  important  and  deserve  to  be  commem- 
orated. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

NARRATION. 

Narration  and  Description. 

,71.  It  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguisii  narration 
from  description,  for  one  kind  of  discourse  passes  into  the 
other  by  insensible  gradations,  and  the  two  kinds  are 
frequently  mingled  in  one  composition.  But  if  we 
select  a  piece  of  writing  that  is  undeniably  description 
and  another  that  is  undeniably  narration,  and  set  them 
side  by  side,  the  essential  points  of  difference  will 
easily  be  seen.  Making  a  comparison  of  this  kind,  put- 
ting, for  example,  the  extract  from  Stevenson's  Master  of 
Ballantrae^  on  p.  251  by  the  side  of  the  description  of 
a  ^'  sugar-bush,"  on  page  213,  we  can  detect  in  the  nar- 
rative an  element  which  is  obviously  lacking  in  the 
description.  In  the  description  of  the  sugar-bush  the 
author  seems  to  be  painting  a  picture  for  us.  It  is  as 
if  we  stood  before  a  canvas  and  watched  the  lines  taking 
form  upon  it  under  the  painter's  hand.  In  the  narrative 
we  are  made  aware  of  something  more  than  a  pictured 
scene.  The  characters  in  the  narrative  are  not  merely 
pictured :  they  live  and  move ;  they  talk  and  fight. 
More  than  this,  the  various  particular  things  that  they 
do  form  a  well-defined  series,  which,  taken  as  a  whole, 
we  may  call  a  single  action.  We  see  this  action  begin ; 
we  see  it  increase  in  interest ;  we  watch  it  run  its  course 

237 


238  NARRATION. 

and  come  to  a  conclusion.  It  is  this  life  and  movement, 
exhibiting  itself  in  a  series  of  closely  connected  incidents, 
which  is  the  distinctive  feature  of  all  narration. 

72.       Assignments  in  Detecting  Narration. 

A.  Are  the  following  selections  narratives  or  descriptions? 
How  much  action  is  there  in  each  of  them  ? 

1.  Soon  he  heard  a  sound  as  of  a  multitudinous  scraping 
and  panting,  above  which  tinkled  a  bell.  A  cloud  of  dust 
rose  from  the  road,  showing,  as  it  parted,  the  yellow  fleeces 
and  black  legs  and  muzzles  of  a  flock  of  Southdown  sheep. 
He  stood  aside  motionless  upon  the  turf,  to  let  them  pass 
without  hindrance ;  but  one  of  the  timid  creatures,  neverthe- 
less, took  fright  at  him,  and  darted  down  the  slope,  followed 
by  an  unreasoning  crowd  of  imitators.  It  did  not  need  a 
low  faint  cry  from  the  shepherd,  who  loomed  far  behind 
above  the  cloud  of  white  dust,  himself  spectral-looking  in 
his  long,  grayish  white  smock-frock,  to  send  the  sheep-dog 
sweeping  over  the  turf,  with  his  fringes  floating  in  the  wind, 
and  his  tongue  hanging  from  his  formidable  jaws,  while  he 
uttered  short  angry  barks  of  reproof,  and  drove  the  truants 
into  the  path  again.  But  again  and  again  and  yet  again 
some  indiscretion  on  the  part  of  the  timid  little  black-faces 
demanded  the  energies  of  their  lively  and  fussy  guardian, 
who  darted  from  one  end  of  the  flock  to  the  other  with 
joyous  rapidity,  hustling  this  sheep,  grumbling  at  that, 
barking  here,  remonstrating  there,  and  driving  the  bewil- 
dered creatures  hither  and  thither  with  a  zeal  that  was 
occasionally  in  excess,  and  drew  forth  a  brief  monosyllable 
from  his  master,  which  caused  the  dog  to  fly  back  and  walk 
sedately  behind  him  with  an  instant  obedience  as  delightful 
as  his  intelligent  activity.  The  actual  commander  of  this 
host  of  living  things  gave  little  sign  of  energy,  but  walked 


DETECTING   NARRATION.  239 

heavily  behind  his  charges  with  a  slow  and  slouching  gait, 
partially  supporting  himself  on  his  long  crooked  stick,  and 
carrying  under  his  left  arm  a  lamb  which  bleated  in  the 
purposeless  way  characteristic  of  these  creatures.  Yet  the 
shepherd's  gaze  was  everywhere,  and  he,  like  his  zealous  lieu- 
tenant, the  dog,  could  distinguish  each  of  these  numerous  and 
apparently  featureless  creatures  from  the  other,  and  every 
now  and  then  a  slight  motion  of  his  crook,  or  some  inarticu- 
late sound,  conveyed  a  whole  code  of  instructions  to  the 
eager  watchful  dog,  who  straightway  acted  upon  them.  All 
this  the  young  man  motionless  on  the  turf  watched  with 
interest  as  if  a  flock  of  sheep  were  something  uncommon  or 
worthy  of  contemplation ;  and  when  they  had  all  gone  by, 
and  the  shepherd  himself  passed  in  review,  his  yellow  sun- 
bleached  beard  shaken  by  the  keen  wind  he  was  facing,  he 
transferred  his  attention  to  him. 

"Blusterous,"  said  the  shepherd,  making  his  crook 
approach  his  battered  felt  hat,  when  he  came  up  with  him. . 

"  Very  blusterous,"  answered  the  gentleman,  nodding  in 
a  friendly  manner,  and  going  on  his  way.  This  was  their 
whole  conversation,  and  yet  the  shepherd  pondered  upon  it 
for  miles,  and  recounted  it  to  his  wife  as  one  of  the  day's 
chie'f  incidents. 

"  And  I  zez  to  'n  '  Blusterous,'  —  I  zez ;  and  he  zez  to  me, 
^  Terble  blusterous,'  he  zez.  Ay,  that's  what  'ee  zed,  zure 
enough,"  he  repeated  with  infinitesimal  variations,  while 
smoking  his  after-supper  pipe  in  his  chimney-corner. 

Thus,  you  see,  human  intercourse  may  1^  carried  on  in 
these  parts  of  the  earth  with  a  moderate  expenditure  of 
words.  —  Edna  Lyall. 

m 

2.  It  was  startlingly  dark  under  the  trees,  and  the  alarmed 
shadows  appeared  to  be  hovering  there  as  if  to  discuss  the 
next  move,  and  to  find  shelter  meanwhile.     A  bat  went  by 


240  NARRATION. 

me  suddenly,  and  at  that  I  stood  still.  I  had  not  thought 
of  bats,  and  of  all  creatures  they  seem  most  frightful  and 
unearthly,  —  like  the  flutter. of  a  ghost's  mantle,  or  even  the 
wave  and  touch  of  its  hand.  A  bat  by  daylight  is  a  harm- 
less, crumpled  bit  of  stupidity,  but  by  night  it  becomes  a 
creature  of  mystery  and  horror,  an  attendant  of  the  powers 
of  darkness.  The  white  light  in  the  sky  grew  whiter  still, 
and  under  the  thin  foliage  of  a  great  willow  it  seemed  less 
solemn.  A  bright  little  moon  looked  dowQ  through  the 
slender  twigs  and  fine  leaves  —  it  might  have  been  a  new 
moon  watching  me  through  an  olive-tree ;  but  I  caught  the 
fragrance  of  the  flowers,  and  hurried  toward  them.  I  went 
back  and  forth  along  the  garden  walk,  and  I  can  never  tell 
any  one  how  beautiful  it  was.  The  roses  were  all  in  bloom, 
and  presently  I  could  detect  the  different  colors.  They  were 
wet  with  dew,  and  hung  heavy  with  their  weight  of  perfume; 
they  appeared  to  be  sound  asleep  yet,  and  turned  their  faces 
away  after  I  touched  them. 
—  Sarah  Orne  Jewett  :   TJie  Confession  of  a  Housebreaker, 

Effect  of  Narration. 
73.  Narration  is,  as  a  general  thing,  more  interesting 
than  description  ;  indeed,  it  surpasses,  in  power  to 
arouse  and  hold  the  interest,  all  of  the  other  forms  of 
discourse.  The  other  forms  may  be  interesting  in  small 
quantities,  or  at  certain  seasons,  or  to  particular  persons  ; 
but  good  narrative  rarely  palls.  A  large  amount  of  it 
may  be  read  consecutively,  not  only  w^ithout  weariness 
but  with  increasing  exhilaration.  It  is  so  fascinating, 
indeed,  that  the  appetite  for  it,  like  the  appetite  for 
strong  drink,  growing  by  what  it  feeds  on,  needs  some- 
times to  be  held  in  check.  Sir  Philip  Sidney  recognizes 
this  attractive  power  of  narrative  when  in  his  Defence 


EFFECT  OF  NARRATION.  241 

of  Poetry  he  tells  how  the  poet  "coraeth  unto  you  with 
a  tale  which  holdeth  children  from  play  and  old  men 
from  the  chimney  corner."  One  may  sometimes  see 
little  children,  in  the  sulks,  and  stubbornly  unwilling 
to  be  brought  out  of  them,  stuff  their  fingers  in  their 
ears  when  a  story  is  begun,  knowing  well  that  if  they 
hear  the  opening  words  of  it  they  cannot  hold  out 
against  its  charm. 

This  magnetic  and  compelling  power  of  narrative  is 
due  to  two  principal  causes,  both  growing  out  of  the 
fact  that  narrative  is  the  representation  of  action.  In 
the  first  place,  action  of  almost  any  kind  appeals  strongly 
to  our  curiosity.  When  we  are  watching  an  action 
taking  place  before  us,  we  are  always  curious  to  know 
what  is  to  happen  next.  "  We  love,"  says  Dr.  John- 
son, "  to  expect,  and  when  expectation  is  disappointed 
or  gratified,  we  want  to  be  again  expecting."  in  nar- 
rative, since  the  action  is  continually  going  on,  there  is, 
until  the  end  is  reached,  alvrays  something  to  expect. 
The  second  cause  of  interest  is  found  in  the  persons 
who  appear  in  the  action  of  the  narrative.  By  acting 
these  persons  reveal  their  characters  to  us.  As  they 
pass  before  us,  we  see  into  their  minds  and  read  their 
thoughts  and  motives.  This  discovery  of  traits  of 
character  is  a  never  failing  source  of  pleasure.  It  is 
like  making  new  and  interesting  acquaintances  at  each 
turn  of  the  leaf. 

These  two  sources  of  interest,  action  and  character,  are 
used  by  all  -writers  of  narrative,  some  depending  almost 
-wholly  upon  the  former,  some  almost  -wholly  upon  the  latter, 
for  their  success.  Tiie  best  writers,  however,  combine  the 
two,  revealing  to  us  in  the  actions  of  their  personages 


242  NARRATION. 

striking  traits  of  character,  but  enhancing  our  interest 
in  the  personages  by  making  the  characteristics  appear 
as  the  result  of  amusing  or  serious  or  terrible  situations 
in  which  the  actors  are  involved. 


74.     Assignments  in  the  Eflfect  of  Narration. 

A.  Recall  a  story  in  which  the  interest  arises  mainly  from  the 
action.  Recall  another  in  which  the  chief  interest  is  in  the 
characters. 

B.  How  is  expectation  aroused  in  the  following  narrative? 
How  is  it  gratified  ?  Is  the  interest  greater  in  the  action  or  in  the 
revelation  of  character  ? 

On  the  afternoon  of  the  14th  of  June,  1727,  two  horse- 
men might  have  been  perceived  galloping  along  the  road 
from  Chelsea  to  Richmond.  The  foremost,  cased  in  the 
jack -boots  of  the  period,  was  a  broad-faced,  jolly-looking, 
and  very  corpulent  cavalier ;  but  by  the  manner  in  which 
he  urged  his  horse,  you  might  see  that  he  was  a  bold  as  well 
as  a  skilful  rider.  Indeed,  no  man  loved  sport  better ;  and 
in  the  hunting  fields  of  Norfolk  no  squire  rode  more  boldly 
after  the  fox,  or  cheered  Ringwood  or  Sweettips  more 
lustily  than  he  who  now  thundered  over  the  Richmond 
road. 

He  speedily  reached  Richmond  Lodge,  and  asked  to  see 
the  owner  of  the  mansion.  The  mistress  of  the  house  and 
her  ladies,  to  whom  our  friend  was  admitted,  said  he  could 
not  be  introduced  to  the  master,  however  pressing  the  busi- 
ness might  be.  The  master  was  asleep  after  his  dinner ;  he 
always  slept  after  his  dinner:  and  woe  be  to  the  person 
who  interrupted  him !  Nevertheless,  our  stout  friend  of  the 
jack-boots  put  the  affrighted  ladies  asi^e,  opened  the  forbid- 
den door  of  the  bedroom,  wherein  upon  the  bed  lay  a  little 


SIMPLE    INCIDENT.  243 

gentleman;   and  here  the  eager  messenger  knelt  down  in 
his  jack-boots. 

He  on  the  bed  started  up;  and  with  many  oaths  and  a 
strong  German  accent  asked  who  was  there,  and  who  dared 
to  disturb  him  ? 

"I  am  Sir  Robert  Walpole/^  said  the  messenger.  The 
awakened  sleeper  hated  Sir  Robert  Walpole.  "  I  have  the 
honor  to  announce  to  your  Majesty  that  your  royal  father, 
King  George  I.,  di^d  at  Osnaburg  on  Saturday  last,  the 
10th  instant/' 

"  Dat  is  one  big  lie  ! ''  roared  out  his  sacred  Majesty  King 
George  II.  But  Sir  Robert  Walpole  stated  the  fact,  and 
from  that  day  until  three-and-thirty  years  after,  George,  the 
second  of  the  name,  ruled  over  England. 

—  Thackeray  :   2Tie  Four  Georges. 

Simple  Incident. 

75.  The  narrative  may  be  very  simple  or  it  may  be 
decidedly  complex.  The  simplest  kind  of  action  will 
suffice  for  a  highly  interesting  narrative  if  the  vrriter 
only  knows  how  to  use  it.  A  skilful  teller  of  stories 
will  content  himself  with  those  familiar,  homely  inci- 
dents which  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield  called  "  migrations 
from  the  blue  bed  to  the  brown  "  ;  and  yet,  by  giving  life 
and  movement  to  his  narrative,  he  will  hold  the  interest 
of  his  readers  from  the  beginning  to  the  end.  In  the 
Confession  of  a  Housebreaker^  for  example.  Miss  Sarah 
Orne  Jewett  makes  a  pleasing  story  out  of  the  simple 
fact  that  once  on  a  summer  morning  she  got  up  at  three 
o'clock,  walked  about  the  garden,  and  went  to  bed 
again.  Lowell,  in  the  passage  quoted  on  page  51,  has 
constructed  a  narrative  out  of  the  doings  of  a  pair  of 


244  NARRATION, 

yellow-birds  who  are  trying  to  build  a  nest.  The  stories 
of  Mr.  Ernest  Thompson-Seton,  the  animal  studies 
of  Miss  Mary  E.  Wilkins,  and  the  charming  anecdotes 
of  Miss  Repplier  about  the  cat,  show  how  the  seemingly 
trivial  actions  of  animals,  wild  or  tame,  may  be  worked 
up  into  fascinating  stories. 

The  requisites  of  simple  narrative  are  those  of  all  good  prose 
composition.  The  narrative  must  have  unity,  sequence,  and 
climax  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  must  be  all  about  dne  subject,  the  various 
happenings  must  follow  one  after  another  in  some  regular  order 
and  be  closely  connected  together,  and  the  story  must  increase  in 
interest  from  the  beginning  to  the  end. 

76.  Assignments  in  Relating  an  Actual  Experience. 

A.  There  are  interesting  stories  handed  down  in  every  family. 
Perhaps  the  following  will  make  you  recall  some  interesting  incident 
that  happened  to  your  grandfather,  or  grandmother,  or  uncle,  or 
some  other  relative.     If  so,  write  it  out  briefly. 

It  was  after  the  Eevolution.  Manufactures,  trade,  all 
business  was  flat  on  its  back.  A  silver  dollar  was  worth 
seventy-five;  corn  was  seventy-five  dollars  a  bushel,  board 
five  hundred  dollars  a  week.  Landed  property  was  worth- 
less, and  the  taxes  were  something  awful.  So  the  general 
dissatisfaction  turned  on  the  courts  and  was  going  to  pre- 
vent collections.  Grandfather  Cobb  was  a  judge  of  the 
probate  court ;  and  when  he  heard  that  a  mob  was  howling 
in  front  of  the  courthouse,  he  put  on  his  old  Continental 
regimentals,  the  old  buff  and  blue,  and  marched  out  alone. 
"  Away  with  your  whining ! ''  says  he.  "If  I  can't  hold  this 
court  in  peace,  I  will  hold  it  in  blood;  if  I  can't  sit  as  a 
judge,  I  will  die  as  a  general !  "  Though  he  was  one  man  to 
hundreds,  he  drew  a  line  in  the  green,  and  told  the  mob 
that  he  would  shoot  with  his  own  hand  the  first  man  that 


RELATING  AN  ACTUAL  EXPERIENCE.  245 

crossed.  He  was  too  many  for  the  crowd,  standing  there  in 
his  old  uniform  in  which  they  knew  he  had  fought  for  them ; 
and  they  only  muttered  and  after  a  while  dispersed.  They 
came  again  the  next  term  of  court ;  but  he  had  his  militia 
and  his  cannon  all  ready  for  them,  then ;  and  this  time  when 
they  got  their  answer  they  took  it,  went  off,  and  never  came 
back.  —  Octave  Thanet  :  A  Son  of  the  Revolution. 

B.  The  following  may  call  to  mind  either  a  ghost-story  that 
you  have  heard  or  some  strange  coincidence.  If  so,  write  it  out  in 
the  form  of  a  letter  to  a  friend  who  is  interested  in  such  things. 

A  very  odd  accident  this  year  [1652]  befell  me,  for  being 
come  about  a  law  suit  to  London  and  lying  in  a  lodging  with 
my  door  fast  locked  (and  by  reason  of  the  great  heat  that 
summer,  all  the  side  curtains  being  flung  atop  of  the  tester 
of  my  bed),  I,  waking  in  the  morning  about  eight  o'clock, 
and  turning  myself  with  intent  to  rise,  plainly  saw  within 
a  yard  of  my  bedside,  a  thing  all  white  like  a  standing  sheet, 
with  a  knot  atop  of  it,  about  four  or  five  feet  high,  which  I 
considered  a  good  while,  and  did  raise  myself  up  in  my  bed 
to  view  the  better.  At  last  I  thrust  out  both  my  hands  to 
catch  hold  of  it,  but,  in  a  moment,  like  a  shadow,  it  slid  to  the 
foot  of  the  bed,  out  of  which  I,  leaping  after  it,  could  see 
it  no  more.  The  little  belief  I  ever  had  in  things  of  this 
nature  made  me  the  more  concerned,  and  doubting  lest  some- 
thing might  have  happened  to  my  wife,  I  rid  home  that  day 
to  Petworth  in  Sussex,  where  I  had  left  her  with  her  father, 
the  Earl  of  Northumberland,  and  as  I  was  going  upstairs  to 
her  chamber,  I  met  one  of  my  footmen,  who  told  me  that  he 
was  coming  to  me  with  a  packet  of  letters,  the  which  I  hav- 
ing taken  from  him  went  to  my  wife,  who  I  found  in  good 
health,  being  in  company  with  Lady  Essex,  her  sister,  and 
another  gentlewoman,  one  Mrs.  Ramsey.  And,  after  the 
first  salutation,  they  all  asked  me  what  made  me  to  come 


246  NARRATION. 

home  so  much  sooner  than  I  intended.  Whereupon  I  told 
them  what  had  happened  to  me  that  morning ;  which  they 
all  wondering  at  desired  me  to  open  and  read  the  letter  that 
I  had  taken  from  the  footman,  which  I  immediately  did,  and 
read  my  wife's  letter  to  me  aloud,  wherein  she  desired  my 
speedy  returning  as  fearing  that  some  ill  would  happen  to 
me,  because  that  morning  she  had  seen  a  thing  all  in  white, 
with  a  black  face,  standing  by  her  bedside,  which  had 
frightened  her  so  much  as  to  make  her  shriek  out  so  loud 
that  her  woman  came  running  into  her  room.  I  confess  this 
seemed  very  strange,  for  by  examining  all  particulars  we 
found  that  the  same  day,  the  same  hour,  and  (as  near  as  can 
be  computed)  the  same  minute,  all  that  had  happened  to  me 
had  befallen  her,  being  forty  miles  asunder.  The  Lady  Essex 
and  Mrs.  Ramsey  are  witnesses  to  both  our  relations. 

—  Letters  of  Philip,  2d  Earl  of  Chesterfield,  p.  11. 

C.  There  is  nobody  but  has  taken  part  in,  or  been  the  victim  or 
witness  of,  a  practical  joke  or  a  well-planned  trick.  Make  a  brief 
story  of  one. 

D.  Does  the  following  remind  you  of  any  strange  occurrence 
in  Nature  in  your  part  of  the  country?  If  so,  write  it  out  in  a 
letter  to  a  friend  who  lives  in  a  distant  part  of  the  country. 

The  months  of  January  and  February,  in  the  year  1774, 
were  remarkable  for  great  melting  snow  and  vast  gluts  of 
rain ;  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  latter  month  the  land-springs, 
or  lavants,  began  to  prevail  and  to  be  near  as  high  as  in  the 
memorable  winter  of  1764.  The  beginning  of  March  also 
went  on  in  the  same  tenor ;  when,  in  the  night  between  the 
8th  and  9th  of  that  month,  a  considerable  part  of  the  great 
woody  hanger  at  Hawkley  was  torn  from  its  place,  and  fell 
down,  leaving  a  high  free-stone  cliff  naked  and  bare,  and 
resembling  the  steep  side  of  a  chalk-pit.  It  appears  that 
this  huge  fragment,  being  perhaps  sapped  and  undermined 


RELATING  AN  ACTUAL  EXPERIENCE.  241 

by  waters,  foundered,  and  was  ingulfed,  going  down  in  a 
perpendicular  direction ;  for  a  gate  which  stood  in  the  field, 
on  the  top  of  the  hill,  after  sinking  with  its  posts  for  thirty 
or  forty  feet,  remained  in  so  true  and  upright  a  position  as 
to  open  and  shut  with  •  great  exactness,  just  as  in  its  first 
situation.  Several  oaks  also  are  still  standing,  and  in  a 
state  of  vegetation,  after  taking  the  same  desperate  leap. 
That  great  part  of  this  prodigious  mass  was  absorbed  in 
some  gulf  below,  is  plain  also  from  the  inclining  ground  at 
the  bottom  of  the  hill,  which  is  free  and  unencumbered ;  but 
would  have  been  buried  in  heaps  of  rubbish,  had  the  frag- 
ment parted  and  fallen  forward.  About  a  hundred  yards 
from  the  foot  of  this  hanging  coppice  stood  a  cottage  by  the 
side  of  a  lane ;  and  two  hundred  yards  lower,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  lane,  was  a  farmhouse,  in  which  lived  a  laborer 
and  his  family  ;  and  just  by,  a  stout  new  barn.  The  cottage 
was  inhabited  by  an  old  woman,  and  her  son,  and  his  wife. 
These  people  in  the  evening,  which  was  very  dark  and  tem- 
pestuous, observed  that  the  brick  floors  of  their  kitchens 
began  to  heave  and  part;  and  the  walls  seemed  to  open, 
and  the  roofs  to  crack ;  but  they  all  agree  that  no  tremor  of 
the  ground,  indicating  an  earthquake,  was  ever  felt ;  only 
that  the  wind  continued  to  make  a  most  tremendous  roaring 
in  the  woods  and  hangers.  The  miserable  inhabitants,  not 
daring  to  go  to  bed,  remained  in  the  utmost  solicitude  and 
confusion,  expecting  every  moment  to  be  buried  under  the 
ruins  of  their  shattered  edifices.  When  daylight  came  they 
were  at  leisure  to  contemplate  the  devastations  of  the  night ; 
they  then  found  that  a  deep  rift,  or  chasm,  had  opened 
under  their  houses,  and  torn  them,  as  it  were,  in  two ;  and 
that  one  end  of  the  barn  had  suffered  in  a  similar  manner : 
that  a  pond  near  the  cottage  had  undergone  a  strange 
reverse,  becoming  deep  at  the  shallow  end,  and  so  vice  versa ; 
that  many  large  oaks  were  removed  out  of  their  perpendicu- 


248  NARRATION, 

lar,  some  thrown  down,  and  some  fallen  into  the  heads  of 
neighboring  trees ;  and  that  a  gate  was  thrust  forward,  with 
its  hedge,  full  six  feet,  so  as  to  require  a  new  track  to  be 
made  to  it.  From  the  foot  of  the  cliff  the  general  course 
of  the  ground,  which  is  pasture,  inclines  in  a  moderate 
descent  for  half  a  mile,  and  is  interspersed  with  some 
hillocks,  which  were  rifted,  in  every  direction,  as  well 
towards  the  great  woody  hanger  as  from  it.  In  the  first 
pasture  the  deep  clefts  began ;  and  running  across  the  lane, 
and  under  the  buildings,  made  such  vast  shelves  that  the 
road  was  impassable  for  some  time ;  and  so  over  to  an  arable 
field  on  the  other  side,  which  was  strangely  torn  and  dis- 
ordered. The  second  pasture-field,  being  more  soft  and 
springy,  was  protruded  forward  without  many  fissures  in  the 
turf,  which  was  raised  in  long  ridges  resembling  graves, 
lying  at  right  angles  to  the  motion.  At  the  bottom  of  this 
enclosure  the  soil  and  turf  rose  many  feet  against  the  bodies 
of  some  oaks  that  obstructed  their  farther  course,  and  termi- 
nated this  awful  commotion. 

—  White  :   The  Natural  History  of  Selhorne,  Letter  xlv. 

E.  In  the  foregoing  selections  are  there  any  sentences  or  parts 
of  sentences  that  might  be  omitted  without  hurting  the  story? 
At  what  part  of  each  story  were  you  most  interested  ? 

Assignment  in  Narrative  Partly  Invented. 

77.  Complete  the  following.  Rewrite  from  the  beginning  and 
introduce  more  descriptive  detail,  if  you  wish :  — 

One  afternoon  we  visited  a  cave  out  of  which  a  little 
stream  found  its  way,  much  to  our  discomfort  when  we 
crawled  through  the  doorway.  Once  inside,  however,  we 
were  able  to  walk  upright.  Sam  led,  a  lighted  candle  in 
his  hand;  George  and  I  followed  close  after.  I  didn't  like 
the  gloom  and  the  dampness  and  secretly  wished  that  Sam 


COMPLEX  NARRATIVE.  249 

would  propose  to  turn  back.  All  at  once,  I  heard  a  queer 
noise  ahead,  like  a  rustle.  It  seemed  to  be  close  to  the 
roof  and  to  be  coming  nearer.     Sam  stopped — 

Complex  Narrative. 
78.  Although,  as  we  have  seen,  the  most  simple 
kind  of  action  may  suffice  for  an  interesting  narra- 
tive, yet,  speaking  generally,  the  interest  may  be  en- 
hanced by  giving  to  the  narrative  a  more  complicated 
character.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  introducing 
into  the  action  some  obstacle  to  its  further  progress, 
or,  what  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  by  setting  two 
opposing  forces  at  work.  The  action  then  takes  on  the 
form  of  a  struggle,  combat,  or  chase.  Consider  one  or 
two  simple  illustrations.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  mason 
is  engaged  in  laying  the  last  course  of  brick  at  the  top 
of  a  tall  chimney.  It  is  after  six  o'clock  and  the  work- 
man is  hungry,  but  he  wishes  to  finish  the  course  before 
he  stops.  So  he  continues  to  work.  At  last  the  final 
brick  is  in  place.  He  throws  down  his  trowel,  puts  on 
his  coat,  descends  the  scaffold  to  the  ground,  and  goes 
to  supper.  These  are  incidents  of  a  simple  kind  which 
a  skilful  writer  of  narrative  might  weave  into  a  pleas- 
ing though  not  very  exciting  story.  Now  let  us  see  if 
by  introducing  some  obstacle  we  cannot  increase  the 
interest.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  high  wind  has  been 
blowing  all  day.  The  workman,  as  he  is  placing  the 
last  brick,  hears  a  crash  and  the  sound  of  falling 
timbers.  Looking  over  the  side  of  the  chimney,  he 
discovers  to  his  dismay  that  the  whole  structure  of  the 
scaffolding,  weakened  at  some  point  by  the  buffetings 
of  the  wind,  has  fallen  to  the  ground.     There  he  is,  two 


250  NARRATION. 

hundred  feet  in  the  air,  supperless,  with  nightfall  com- 
ing on  and  no  means  of  getting  down  or  even  of  attract- 
ing the  attention  of  his  fellows.  Here,  it  is  obvious,  is 
material  for  an  exciting  story.  Or,  to  take  an  example 
of  a  different  kind,  suppose  the  case  of  a  boy  who  walks 
home  through  a  lonely  path  in  the  woods  without  meet- 
ing anything  except  a  couple  of  squirrels ;  and  suppose 
again  the  case  of  the  same  boy,  who  midway  of  the  path 
encounters  a  ferocious  bear.  In  both  the  story  of  the 
workman  and  the  story  of  the  boy  the  introduction  of 
the  obstacle  —  to  the  descent  of  the  workman  in  one 
case,  to  the  further  progress  of  the  boy  in  the  other  — 
brings  about  a  situation  of  an  interesting  and  exciting 
kind.  Our  curiosity  is  strongly  aroused  to  know  what 
is  going  to  happen  next,  and  we  wonder  what  the  out- 
come will  be. 

^  A  narrative  in  which  an  obstacle  is  interposed  to  interrupt  the 
free  action  of  the  chief  character  or  characters  of  the  story,  and 
thus  to  complicate  the  incidents,  is  said  to  have  plot 

The  clash  between  the  character  and  the  obstacle,  or  between 
the  two  opposing  forces,  is  called  the  collision. 

The  attitude  of  strained  expectancy  with  which  we  await  the 
outcome  of  the  struggle  is  termed  suspense. 

Every  story  which  has  plot,  or  complication  of  inci- 
dents, may  thus  be  said  to  consist  of  two  principal  ele- 
ments :  — 

(1)  an  actor,  or  a  set  of  actors,  who  are  trying  to 
carry  out  some  purpose  ;  and 

(2)  an  obstacle,  consisting  of  things  or  persons, 
which  opposes,  either  passively  or  actively,  this  pur- 
pose. Since  the  action  goes  on  in  a  particular  place  or 
in  particular  places,  we  may  add  to  the  foregoing 


COMPLEX  NARRATIVE.  .251 

(3)  the  element  of  the  setting  or  surroundings  of  the 
story. 

In  the  following  narrative  the  two  opposing  charac- 
ters are  the  Master  and  Mr.  Henry.  Either  one  may 
be  considered  as  the  chief  character,  to  which  the  other 
is  the  obstacle.  The  plot  arises  from  the  collision  be- 
tween these  two  characters,  the  collision  in  this  case 
taking  the  form  of  a  duel.  As  we  watch  the  combat 
our  suspense  increases  steadily  until  the  fall  of  the 
Master,  when  it  reaches  its  highest  point.  The  setting 
is  indicated  in  the  second,  third,  and  seventh  sentences, 
—  "a  windless  stricture  of  frost,"  "^the  blackness," 
"  the  frozen  path,"  "  the  frosted  trees." 

I  took  up  the  candlestick  and  went  before  them,  steps 
that  I  would  give  my  hand  to  recall ;  but  a  coward  is  a  slave 
at  the  best;  and  even  as  I  went,  my  teeth  smote  each  other 
in  my  mouth.  It  was  as  he  had  said,  there  was  no  breath 
stirring;  a  windless  stricture  of  frost  had  bound  the  air; 
and  as  we  went  forth  in  the  shine  of  the  candles,  the  black- 
ness was  like  a  roof  over  our  heads.  Kever  a  word  was 
said,  there  was  never  a  sound  but  the  creaking  of  our  steps 
along  the  frozen  path.  The  cold  of  the  night  fell  about  me 
like  a  bucket  of  water ;  I  shook  as  I  went  with  more  than 
terror;  but  my  companions,  bare-headed  like  myself  and 
fresh  from  the  warm  hall,  appeared  not  even  conscious  of 
the  change. 

''Here  is  the  place,"  said  the  Master.  "Set  down  the 
candles." 

I  did  as  he  bid  me,  and  presently  the  flames  went  up  as 
steady  as  in  a  chamber  in  the  midst  of  the  frosted  trees, 
and  I  beheld  these  two  brothers  take  their  places. 

"  The  light  is  something  in  my  eyes,"  said  the  Master. 


252  NARRATION. 

"  I  will  give  you  every  advantage,"  replied  Mr.  Henry, 
shifting  his  ground,  '^  for  I  think  you  are  about  to  die."  He 
spoke  rather  sadly  than  otherwise,  yet  there  was  a  ring  in 
his  voice. 

"Henry  Durie,"  said  the  Master,  "two  words  before  I 
begin.  You  are  a  fencer,  you  can  hold  a  foil;  you  little 
know  what  a  change  it  makes  to  hold  a  sword !  And  by 
that  I  know  you  are  to  fall.  But  see  how  strong  is  my 
situation  !  If  you  fall,  I  shift  out  of  this  country  to  where 
my  money  is  before  me.  If  I  fall,  where  are  you?  My 
father,  your  wife  who  is  in  love  with  me  —  as  you  very  well 
know  —  your  child  even  who  prefers  me  to  yourself:  — how 
will  those  avenge  me !  Had  you  thought  of  that,  dear 
Henry  ? "  He  looked  at  his  brother  with  a  smile ;  then 
made  a  fencing-room  salute. 

Never  a  word  said  Mr.  Henry,  but  saluted  too,  and  the 
swords  rang  together. 

I  am  no  judge  of  the  play,  my  head  besides  was  gone 
with  cold,  and  fear,  and  horror ;  but  it  seems  that  Mr. 
Henry  took  and  kept  the  upper  hand  from  the  engagement, 
crowding  in  upon  his  foe  with  a  contained  and  glowing 
fury.  Nearer  and  nearer  he  crept  upon  the  man  till,  of  a 
sudden,  the  Master  leaped  back  with  a  little  sobbing  oath ; 
and  I  believe  the  movement  brought  the  light  once  more 
against  his  eyes.  To  it  they  went  again,  on  the  fresh 
ground;  but  now  methought  closer,  Mr.  Henry  pressing 
more  outrageously,  the  Master  beyond  doubt  with  shaken 
confidence.  For  it  is  beyond  doubt  he  now  recognized  him- 
self for  lost,  and  had  some  taste  of  the  cold  agony  of  fear ; 
or  he  had  never  attempted  the  foul  stroke.  I  cannot  say  I 
followed  it,  my  untrained  eye  was  never  quick  enough  to 
seize  details,  but  it  appears  he  caught  his  brother's  blade 
with  his  left  hand,  a  practice  not  permitted.  Certainly 
Mr.  Henry  only  saved  himself  by  leaping  on  one  side ;  as 


SUPPLYING   THE  OBSTACLE.  253 

certainly  the  Master,  lunging  in  the  air,  stumbled  on  his 
knee,  and  before  he  could  move,  the  sword  was  through  his 
body. 

I  cried  out  with  a  stifled  scream,  and  ran  in ;  but  the 
body  was  already  fallen  to  the  ground,  where  it  writhed  a 
moment  like  a  trodden  worm,  and  then  lay  motionless. 
—  Stevenson  :  Master  of  Ballantrae,  pp.  137-139. 

79.      Assignments  in  Supplying  the  Obstacle. 

A.  Introduce  into  the  following  simple  narrative  some  obstacle 
that  will  create  suspense  and  plot-interest.  Rewrite  from  the 
beginning  if  you  wish. 

Here  I  live  with  tolerable  content :  perhaps  with  as  much 
as  most  people  arrive  at,  and  what,  if  one  were  properly 
grateful,  one  would  perhaps  call  perfect  happiness.  Here  is 
a  glorious  sunshiny  day :  all  the  morning  I  read  about  Nero 
in  Tacitus,  lying  at  full  length  on  a  bench  in  the  garden :  a 
nightingale  singing,  and  some  red  anemones  eyeing  the  sun 
manfully  not  far  off.  A  funny  mixture  all  this  :  Nero,  and 
the  delicacy  of  Spring ;  all  very  human,  however.  Then  at 
half  past  one  lunch  on  Cambridge  cream  cheese  ;  then  a  ride 
over  hill  and  dale ;  then  spudding  up  some  weeds  from  the 
grass ;  and  then  coming  in,  I  sit  down  to  write  to  you,  my 
sister  winding  red  worsted  from  the  back  of  a  chair,  and 
the  most  delightful  little  girl  in  the  world  chattering  inces- 
santly.    So  runs  the  world  away. 

---B.    Supply  some  fitting  obstacle  for  one  of  the  following  nar- 
rative subjects  and  write  the  story  in  full. 

1.  A  little  journey  in  an  automobile.  2.  Going  for  the 
mail.  3.  How  we  put  up  our  telephone  line.  4.  A  visit  to 
cousin  Frank's.  5.  A  night  in  a  haunted  house.  6.  How 
I  paid  back  ten  dollars.  7.  Tacking  round  the  Point. 
8.    Dressing  for  the  party. 


254  NARRATION. 

Blinds  of  Obstacle. 

80.  The  obstacle  to  the  action  of  the  chief  character 
may  be  of  many  different  kinds.  It  may  be  some  physical 
thing,  like  a  high  stone  wall,  which  bars  the  progress  of 
an  escaping  prisoner,  or  a  head  wind,  which,  to  the  dis- 
tress of  two  long-parted  souls,  delays  a  homeward  bound 
ship.  It  may  be  an  animal,  like  the  lion  in  Christian's 
path  or  the  dragon  in  Siegfried's.  It  may  be  another 
person,  or  a  group  of  persons,  who  by  malice  or  by  chance 
thwart  the  desires  of  the  hero.  Finally,  it  may  be  simply 
a  conviction  in  the  mind  of  the  actor  himself  which 
fights  against  his  own  bad  impulses  and  hinders  him 
from  pursuing  the  path  he  had  hastily  chosen.  The 
inward  struggles  of  the  hero  in  chapters  XV  and  XVI 
of  Tom  Brown  at  Oxford  are  directed  against  an  obstacle 
of  this  latter  kind.  The  obstacle  sometimes  means 
more  than  appears  on  the  surface.  It  may  represent 
hidden  laws  and  forces.  For  example,  a  fallen  tree 
pinning  a  woodman  to  the  ground  represents  a  natural 
force.  The  woodman  is  fighting,  not  the  tree  but  the 
law  of  gravitation.  An  outlaw  surrounded  by  a  sheriff's 
posse  is  fighting  not  merely  a  company  of  men,  but  the 
law  of  the  land. 


81.      Assignments  in  the  Kind  of  Obstacle. 

A.  What  is  the  character  of  the  obstacle  In  Longfellow's 
Evangeline  f  in  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake  ?  in  Hale's  Man  Without 
a  Country?  in  Stevenson's  Treasure  Island?  in  Shakespeare's 
Julius  Ccesar?    or  in  any  other  story  that  you  have  read? 

B.  Find  a  short  story  in  one  of  the  magazines ;  bring  it  to 
class.     Be  prepared  to  point  out  the  place  where  the  obstacle  is 


THE  BEGINNING,  255 

first  introduced  or  hinted  at.    Let  the  class  guess  how  the  obstacle 
is  overcome. 

Development  of  the  Plot. 

82.  Aristotle,  writing  more  than  two  thousand  years 
ago,  laid  down  the  principle  that  a  plot  should  have  a  be- 
ginning, a  middle,  and  an  end.  He  meant  that  it  should 
begin  in  a  natural  and  effective  way,  should  grow  in 
interest  up  to  a  certain  point  (usually  somewhat  beyond 
the  middle),  and  should  come  to  a  fitting  conclusion. 
It  will  be  helpful  to  consider  these  three  parts,  or  stages, 
of  the  narrative  in  turn. 

The  Beginning. 

83.  In  the  first  part  of  the  narrative  the  characters 
are  introduced,  the  place  in  which  the  action  goes  on  is 
named  and  perhaps  described,  and  the  action  itself  is 
set  going.  It  is  often  well  to  begin  the  action  at  once, 
—  with  the  opening  sentence  if  possible.  The  characters 
and  the  setting  should  be  brought  in  as  the  action  goes 
on  and  by  means  of  the  action.  The  narrative  quoted 
on  page  242  illustrates  well  a  beginning  of  this  kind. 
A  beginning  which  prefaces  the  action  by  an  elaborate 
description  of  the  characters  and  the  setting  is  usually 
tedious,  and  always  less  effective  than  it  should  be. 

84.  Assignments  on  the  Beginning. 

A.  What  kind  of  story  is  predicted  by  each  of  the  following 
beginnings,  —  humorously  proposed  by  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  in 
one  of  his  letters  to  W.  £.  Henley  ?  Do  they  give  both  setting  and 
characters?     Propose  a  fitting  obstacle  for  each. 


256  NARRATION. 

Chapter  I. 

The  night  was  damp  and  cloudy;  the  ways  foul.  The 
single  horseman,  cloaked  and  booted,  who  pursued  his  way 
across  Willesden  Common  had  not  met  a  traveller,  when 
the  sound  of  wheels  — 

Chapter  I. 

"Yes,  sir,"  said  the  old  pilot,  "she  must  have  dropped 
into  the  bay  a  little  afore  dawn.     A  queer  craft  she  looks." 

"She  shows  no  colors,"  returned  the  yojing  gentleman, 
musingly. 

"They're  a-lowering  of  a  quarter-boat,  Mr.  Mark,"  re- 
sumed the  old  salt.     "  We  shall  soon  know  more  of  her." 

"Ay,"  replied  the  young  gentleman  called  Mark,  "and 
here,  Mr.  Seadrift,  comes  your  sweet  daughter  Nancy  trip- 
ping down  the  cliff." 

"  God  bless  her  kind  heart,  sir,"  ejaculated  old  Seadrift. 

Chapter  I. 

The  notary,  Jean  Rossignol,  had  been  summoned  to  the 
top  of  a  great  house  in  the  Isle  of  St.  Louis  to  make  a  will ; 
and  now,  his  duties  finished,  wrapped  in  a  warm  roquelaure 
and  with  a  lantern  swinging  from  one  hand,  he  issued  from 
the  mansion  on  his  homeward  way.  Little  did  he  think 
what  strange  adventures  were  to  befall  him  !  — 

B.  Each  of  the  following  sentences  announces  the  first  appear- 
ance of  the  obstacle.  Supply  an  appropriate  beginning  for  one  of 
them. 

1.  Suddenly  right  in  front  of  the  three  girls  a  vicious- 
looking  tramp  sprang  from  behind  the  big  tree. 

2.  Their  way  was  blocked  by  the  flames. 

3.  He  was  halted  by  a  sudden  impulse. 


THE  MIDDLE.  251 

4.  The  ice  began  to  crack  all  about  them. 

5.  The  ladder  would  not  reach. 

The  Middle. 

85.  After  the  characters  and  the  setting  have  been 
introduced  the  obstacle  usually  appears.  Then  begins 
the  clash  of  the  opposing  forces,  which  may  take  a  variety 
of  forms,  according  to  the  character  of  the  chief  actor 
and  the  nature  of  the  obstacle.  When  the  actor  en- 
counters the  obstacle  his  first  impulse,  if  he  is  a  man  of 
spirit,  is  to  overcome  it.  He  tries  to  break  it  down  or 
to  destroy  it  or  to  move  it  out  of  his  path.  Failing  in 
this,  he  attempts  to  get  over  or  around  it.  These 
endeavors  result  in  the  incidents  of  the  story. 

As  the  struggle  goes  on,  the  interest  grows  more  and 
more  intense  until  it  reaches  its  highest  point,  or,  as  it 
is  sometimes  termed,  its  climax.  The  actor  puts  forth 
his  utmost  endeavors.  The  reader  waits  with  breathless 
expectancy.  Something  happens  —  the  most  momen- 
tous thing  in  the  story.  The  tension  is  then  released, 
and  the  story,  if  it  does  not  end  at  the  climax,  goes  on 
to  a  fitting  conclusion. 

86.  Assignments  on  the  Middle. 

A.  In  the  following  narratives  where  is  the  obstacle  first 
brought  into  play  ?  What  is  the  climax,  or  the  highest  point  of 
the  collision  ?     Where  is  the  climax  ? 

1.  I  will  describe  a  single  combat  of  a  very  terrible  nature 
I  once  witnessed  between  two  little  spiders  belonging  to  the 
same  species.  One  had  a  small  web  against  a  wall,  and  of  this 
web  the  other  coveted  possession.  After  vainly  trying  by  a 
series  of  strategic  movements  to  drive  out  the  lawful  owner. 


258  NARRATION. 

it  rushed  on  to  the  web,  and  the  two  envenomed  little  duelists 
closed  in  mortal  combat.  They  did  nothing  so  vulgar  and 
natural  as  to  make  use  of  their  falces,  and  never  once  actually 
touched  each  other,  but  the  fight  was  none  the  less  deadly. 
Eapidly  revolving  about,  or  leaping  over,  or  passing  under, 
each  other,' each  endeavored  to  impede  or  entangle  his  adver- 
sary, and  the  dexterity  with  which  each  avoided  the  cun- 
ningly thrown  snare,  trying  at  the  same  time  to  entangle  its 
opponent,  was  wonderful  to  see.  At  length,  after  this  equal 
battle  had  raged  for  some  time,  one  of  the  combatants  made 
some  fatal  mistake,  and  for  a  moment  there  occurred  a  break 
in  his  motions;  instantly  the  other  perceived  his  advantage 
and  began  leaping  backward  and  forward  over  across  his 
struggling  adversary  with  such  rapidity  as  to  confuse  the 
sight,  producing  the  appearance  of  two  spiders  attacking  a 
third  one  lying  between  them.  He  then  changed  his  tactics 
and  began  revolving  round  and  round  his  prisoner,  and  very 
soon  the  poor  vanquished  wretch  —  the  aggressor,  let  us 
hope,  in  the  interests  of  justice  —  was  closely  wrapped  in  a 
silvery  cocoon,  which,  unlike  the  cocoon  the  caterpillar 
weaves  for  itself,  was  also  its  winding-sheet. 

—  Hudson  :   The  Naturalist  in  La  Plata,  p.  193 

2.  And  so  the  soldiers  stand  to  their  arms,  or  lie  within 
instant  reach  of  their  arms,  all  night;  being  upon  an  en- 
gagement very  difficult  indeed.  The  night  is  wild  and  wet ; 
—  2d  of  September  means  12th  by  our  calendar :  the  Har- 
vest Moon  wades  deep  among  clouds  of  sleet  and  hail. 
Whoever  has  a  heart  for  prayer,  let  him  pray  now,  for  the 
wrestle  of  death  is  at  hand.  Pray,  —  and  withal  keep  his 
powder  dry  !  And  be  ready  for  extremities,  and  quit  him- 
self like  a  man!  —  Thus  they  passed  the  night;  making 
that  Dunbar  Peninsula  and  Brock  Rivulet  long  memorable 
to  me.     We  English  have  some  tents  ;  the  Scots  have  none. 


THE  MIDDLE.  259 

The  hoarse  sea  moans  bodeful,  swinging  low  and  heavy 
against  these  whinstone  bays;  —  the  sea  and  the  tempests 
are  abroad,  all  else  asleep  but  we,  —  and  there  is  One  that 
rides  on  the  wings* of  the  wind.  .  .  . 

And  now  is  the  hour  when  the  attack  should  be,  and  no 
Lambert  is  yet  here,  he  is  ordering  the  line  far  to  the  right 
yet ;  and  Oliver  occasionally,  in  Hodgson's  hearing,  is  im- 
patient for  him.  The  Scots,  too,  on  this  wing,  are  awake ; 
thinking  to  surprise  us  ;  there  is  their  trumpet  sounding,  we 
heard  it  once  ;  and  Lambert,  who  was  to  lead  the  attack,  is 
not  here.  The  Lord  General  is  impatient ;  —  behold  Lam- 
bert at  last !  The  trumpets  peal,  shattering  with  fierce 
clangor  Night's  silence ;  the  cannons  awaken  all  along  the 
Line :  "  The  Lord  of  Hosts  ! "  "  The  Lord  of  Hosts  ! ''  On, 
my  brave  ones ;  on  !  — 

The  dispute  ''on  this  right  wing  was  hot  and  stiff,  for 
three-quarters  of  an  hour."  Plenty  of  fire,  from  field-pieces, 
snaphances,  matchlocks,  entertains  the  Scotch  main-battle 
across  the  Brock;  —  poor  stiffened  men  roused  from  the 
corn-shocks  with  their  matches  all  out !  But  here  on  the 
right,  their  horse,  "  with  lances  in  the  front  rank,"  charge 
desperately ;  drive  us  back  across  the  hollow  of  the  Rivu- 
let;—  back  a  little;  but  the  Lord  gives  us  courage,  and 
we  storni  home  again,  horse  and  foot,  upon  them,  with  a 
shock  like  tornado  tempests ;  break  them,  beat  them,  drive 
them  all  adrift.  "  Some  fled  towards  Copperspath,  but  most 
across  their  own  foot."  Their  own  poor  foot,  whose  matches 
were  hardly  well  alight  yet !  Poor  men,  it  was  a  terrible 
awakening  for  them :  field-pieces  and  charge  of  foot  across 
the  Brocksburn ;  and  now  here  is  their  own  horse  in  mad 
panic  trampling  them  to  death.  Above  three-thousand 
killed  upon  the  place :  "  I  never  saw  such  a  charge  of 
foot  and  horse,"  says  one ;  nor  did  I.  .  Oliver  was  still  near 
to  Yorkshire  Hodgson  when  the  shock  succeeded;    Hodg- 


260  NARRATION. 

son  heard  him  say,  "  They  run  !  I  profess  they  run ! ''  And 
over  St.  Abb's  Head  and  the  German  Ocean  just  then  burst 
the  first  gleam  of  the  level  Sun  upon  us,  "  and  I  heard  Nol 
say,  in  the  words  of  the  Psalmist,  ^Let^God  arise,  let  His 
enemies  be  scattered.'" 

—  Carlyle  :   Oliver  Cromwell^  vol.  i,  p.  465. 

B.  Continue  one  of  Stevenson's  beginnings  (p.  256)  until  you 
have  (1)  introduced  an  obstacle;  (2)  produced  a  struggle;  (3) 
reached  a  climax.  Or  begin  a  new  story  and  carry  it  through 
these  three  stages.     The  following  may  suggest  a  story :  — 

1.  A  poor  tenement  district  in  New  York. — Children  play 
on  roofs.  — A  mother,  going  away  to  work  all  day,  tethers  her 
four-year-old  to  one  of  the  chimneys,  at  end  of  long  clothes- 
line.—  Firemen  in  engine-house  across  street  startled  to  see 
a  child  dangling  high  in  mid-air  at  end  of  a  line. — At- 
tempted rescue.  —  Longest  ladders  barely  reach.  —  At  last 
tallest  fireman  at  top  of  longest  ladder  manages  to  get  within 
reach.  —  Suddenly  child  slips  out  of  rope  and  (horror  of 
crowd  below)  disappears  utterly.  —  Widow  Murphy  on  fire- 
escape  at  third  floor  later  discovers  a  four-year-old  playing 
on  a  mattress  that  she  had  put  out  on  fire-escape  to  air. 

2.  Two  boys  living  in  an  abandoned  mining  district  are 
walking  along  a  slope  when  one  suddenly  sinks  through  the 
surface. — Other  tries  to  rescue  him  and  also  falls  in. — 
After  long  exploring,  they  finally  come  out  in  the  vegetable- 
cellar  of  a  house  half  a  mile  away. 

3.  A  young  girl  in  a  large  city  is  compelled  by  a  drunken 
mother  to  beg  on  the  street.  —  Girl's  conscience  revolts  at 
the  lies  she  must  tell  day  after  day.  —  Some  of  her  experi- 
ences. —  Hits  upon  a  plan  for  honest  self-support.  —  A  queer 
profession  —  repairer  of  rag  dolls.  —  Final  success,  and  re- 
form of  the  mother. 


THE    END.  261 

4.  Two  boys  in  a  big  city  high  school  have  exactly  the 
same  name,  though  not  related  —  one  a  fine  student;  other 
careless,  rich,  and  a  failure.  —  At  end  of  term,  each  takes 
home  the  other's  report  card.  —  How  the  matter  was  straight- 
ened out. 

The  End. 

87.  A  narrative  may  close  in  several  different  ways. 
The  chief  actor,  after  struggle  with  the  obstacle,  may 
succeed  in  overcoming  it  and  go  on  his  way  rejoicing. 
In  that  case  we  have  a  cheerful  conclusion.  Or  he  may 
struggle  with  it  and  be  overcome  by  it  and  die.  In 
that  case  we  have  a  painful  conclusion.  Sometimes 
it  appears  in  the  course  of  the  story  that  the  chief 
character  is  himself  responsible  for  the  obstacle.  With 
his  own  hand,  however  unwittingl}^  he  put  it  there. 
He  dug  the  pit  into  which  he  himself  falls.  The  trap 
he  set  for  some  one  else  catches  him.  Some  slight 
defect  in  his  character,  or  the  indulgence  of  some  whim, 
turns  out  to  be  an  obstacle  to  the  fulfilment  of  his  dear- 
est hopes.  Then,  if  the  end  is  the  death  or  ruin  of  the 
hero,  we  have  what  is  called  a  tragic  ending. 

In  a  well-constructed  plot  there  is  but  one  main  line 
of  incidents.  Along  this  track  the  action  presses  right 
forward  to  its  goal,  —  the  climax.  Minor  incidents 
there  may  be  in  abundance,  but  upon  examination  they 
will  be  found  to  be  so  used  as  to  contribute  in  some 
way  to  the  forward  movement  of  the  main  action.  The 
incidents  of  this  action  are  closely  bound  together. 
Each  one,  after  the  first,  grows  naturally  out  of  the 
incident  that  precedes  it,  and  each  one  except  the  last 
grows  naturally  into  the  incident  that  follows  it.     The 


262  NARRATION. 

test  of  a  good  plot  was  stated  by  Aristotle  in  the  fol- 
lowing words,  and  no  one  since  his  time  has  improved 
upon  it :  ''The  plot,"  says  Aristotle,  "being  a  representa- 
tion of  action,  must  be  the  representation  of  one  complete 
action,  and  the  parts  of  the  action  must  be  so  arranged  that 
if  any  be  transposed  or  removed,  the  Twrhole  vrill  be  broken 
up  and  disturbed;  for  Tvhat  proves  nothing  by  its  inser- 
tion or  omission  is  no  part  of  the  -whole." 

88.  Assignments  on  the  Plot. 

A.  Examine  the  conclusions  of  the  several  narratives  quoted  in 
the  preceding  pages  of  this  chapter.  Is  the  conclusion  in  each 
case  expected?    What  is  its  nature? 

B.  Analyze  the  following  narratives,  pointing  out  (1)  the  ele- 
ments of  the  story,  that  is,  the  opposing  forces,  and  the  setting ; 
(2)  the  nature  of  the  obstacle ;  (3)  the  character  of  the  beginning; 
(4)  the  means  of  exciting  suspense ;  (5)  the  point  of  highest  in- 
terest; (6)  the  nature  of  the  conclusion.  Then  taking  it  up 
sentence  by  sentence,  show  how  each  part  of  the  narrative  con- 
tributes to  the  development  of  the  plot.  See  whether  any  of  the 
sentences  can  be  taken  out  or  transposed  without  disturbing  the 
unity  and  sequence  of  the  whole. 

1.  On  topping  some  rising  ground  we  again  sighted  ante- 
lope. 2.  The  hood  was  then  slipped  from  the  chetah's  head. 
3.  He  saw  the  animals  at  once  ;  his  body  quivered  all  over 
with  excitement,  the  tail  straightened,  and  the  hackles  on 
his  shoiilders  stood  erect,  while  his  eyes  gleamed,  and  he 
strained  at  the  cord,  which  was  held  short.  4.  In  a  second 
it  was  unfastened,  there  was  a  yellow  streak  in  the  air, 
and  the  chetah  was  crouching  low  some  yards  away.  5.  In 
this  position,  and  taking  advantage  of  a  certain  unevenness 
of  the  ground  which  gave  him  cover,  he  stealthily  crept 
forward  toward  a  buck    that  was  feeding  some  distance 


THE    PLOT.  263 

away  from  the  others.  6.  Suddenly  this  antelope  saw  or 
scented  his  enemy,  for  he  was  off  like  the  wind.  7.  He 
was,  however,  too  late ;  the  chetah  had  been  too  quick  for 
him.  8.  All  that  was  to  be  seen  was  a  flash,  as  the  supreme 
rush  was  made.  9.  This  movement  of  the  chetah  is  said  to 
be,  for  the  time  it  lastfs,  the  quickest  thing  in  the  animal 
world,  far  surpassing  the  speed  of  a  race-horse.  10.  Cer- 
tainly it  surprised  all  of  us,  who  were  intently  watching  the 
details  of  the  scene  being  enacted  in  our  view.  11.  The  pace 
was  so  marvellously  great  that  the  chetah  actually  sprang 
past  the  buck,  although  by  this  time  the  terrified  animal 
was  fairly  stretched  out  at  panic  speed.  12.  This  over- 
shooting the  mark  by  the  chetah  had  the  effect  of  driving 
the  antelope,  which  swerved  off  immediately  from  his  line, 
into  running  round  in  a  circle,  with  the  chetah  on  the  out- 
side. 13.  The  tongas  were  then  galloped  up,  and  the  excite- 
ment of  the  occupants  can  scarcely  be  described.  14.  In  my 
eagerness  to  see  the  finish,  I  jumped  off  and  took  to  run- 
ning, but  the  hunt  was  soon  over,  for  before  I  could  get 
quite  up,  the  chetah  got  close  to  the  buck,  and  with  a  spring 
at  his  haunches,  brought  him  to  the  ground.  15.  The  leop- 
ard then  suddenly  released  his  hold,  and  sprang  at  his  vic- 
tim's throat,  throwing  his  prey  over  on  its  back,  where  it 
was  held  when  we  arrived  on  the  spot.  —  Century,  47  :  574. 

2.  The  first  interest  was  attracted  toward  the  combat  of 
Niger  with  Sporus;  for  this  species  of  contest,  from  the 
fatal  result  which  usually  attended  it,  and  from  the  great 
science  it  required  in  either  antagonist,  was  always  pecul- 
iarly inviting  to  the  spectators. 

They  stood  at  a  considerable  distance  from  each, other. 
The  singular  helmet  which  Sporus  wore  (the  visor  of  which 
was  down)  concealed  his  face;  but  the  features  of  Niger 
attracted  a  fearful  and  universal  interest  from  their  com- 


264  NARRATION. 

pressed  and  vigilant  ferocity.  Thus  they  stood  for  some 
moments,  each  eyeing  each,  until  Sporus  began  slowly  and 
with  great  caution  to  advance,  holding  his  sword  pointed, 
like  a  modern  fencer's,  at  the  breast  of  his  foe.  Niger  re- 
treated as  his  antagonist  advanced,  gathering  up  his  net  with 
his  right  hand,  and  never  taking  his  small  glittering  eyes 
from  the  movements  of  the  swordsman.  Suddenly,  when 
Sporus  had  approached  nearly  at  arm's  length,  the  retiarius 
threw  himself  forward  and  cast  his  net.  A  quick  inflection 
of  body  saved  the  gladiator  from  the  deadly  snare.  He 
uttered  a  sharp  cry  of  joy  and  rage,  and  rushed  upon 
Niger ;  but  Niger  had  already  drawn  in  his  net,  thrown  it 
across  his  shoulders,  and  now  fled  round  the  lists  with  a 
swiftness  which  the  persecutor  in  vain  endeavored  to  excel. 
The  people  laughed  and  shouted  aloud,  to  see  the  ineffectual 
efforts  of  the  broad-shouldered  gladiator  to  overtake  the 
flying  giant. 

"  A  Sporus !  a  Sporus  !  "  shouted  the  populace,  as  Niger, 
having  now  suddenly  paused,  had  again  cast  his  net,  and 
again  unsuccessfully.  He  had  not  retreated  this  time  with 
sufficient  agility,  —  the  sword  of  Sporus  had  inflicted  a  severe 
wound  upon  his  right  leg ;  and,  incapacitated  to  fly,  he  was 
pressed  hard  by  the  fierce  swordsman.  His  great  height 
and  length  of  arm  still  continued,  however,  to  give  him  no 
despicable  advantages ;  and  steadily  keeping  his  trident  at 
the  front  of  his  foe,  he  repelled  him  successfully  for  several 
minutes.  Sporus  now  tried,  by  great  rapidity  of  evolution, 
to  get  round  his  antagonist,  who  necessarily  moved  with 
pain  and  slowness.  In  so  doing,  he  lost  his  caution,  —  he 
advanced  too  near  to  the  giant,  —  raised  his  arm  to  strike, 
and  received  the  three  points  of  the  fatal  spear  full  in  his 
breast!  He  sank  on  his  knee.  In  a  moment  more  the 
deadly  net  was  cast  over  him,  he  struggled  against  its 
meshes    in    vain.       Again,  —  again,  —  again    he    writhed 


THE  POINT  OF  THE  STORY.  265 

mutely  beneath  the  fresh  strokes  of  the  trident !  His  blood 
flowed  fast  through  -the  net  and  redly  over  the  sand !  He 
lowered  his  arms  in  acknowledgment  of  defeat. 

—  BuLWER :  Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  Bk.  V,  chap.  ii. 

C.   Make  a  plot  for  a  story  from  one  of  the  following  combina- 
tions :  — 

1.  A  careless  lawyer,  a  lost  will,  two  misdirected  letters. 

2.  A  fighting  dog,  a  small  boy,  an  organ-grinder  with 
monkey,  a  policeman. 

3.  An  auction,  a  picture,  a  tramp,  a  rich  buyer. 

4.  A  school  fire  at  night,  a  class  flag,  a  venturesome  boy. 

5.  A  school  club  with  nothing  to  do,  a  poor  widow,  a 
house  with  leaky  roof,  a  boy,  a  speech. 

The  Point  of  the  Story. 

89.  Every  good  narrative  has  a  "point,"  a  meaning,  a 
central  idea,  which  is  its  reason  for  coming  into  existence 
and  its  excuse  for  being  told  at  all.  Sometimes  the 
point  is  obvious,  as  in  the  fable,  where  it  takes  the  form 
of  a  moral  plainly  stated  at  the  close.  But  in  most  cases 
the  point  is  not  stated  ;  the  reader  is  left  to  draw  it  out 
as  best  he  can  from  the  incidents  of  the  narrative.  In 
still  other  cases  the  writer  takes  pains  to  conceal  the 
point  of  his  story  because  he  fears  that  too  plain  an  ex- 
hibition of  it  will  check  the  reader's  interest. 

90.  Assignment  on  the  Point  of  the  Story. 

What  is  the  point  of  the  following  story  of  the  Man  and  the 
Good  People  ?     State  it  in  a  single  brief  sentence. 

Alan  was  the  first  to  come  round.  He  rose,  went  to  the 
border  of  the  wood,  peered  out  a  little,  and  then  returned 
and  sat  down. 


266  NARRATION. 

^^  Well,"  said  he,  ''yon  was  a  hot  burst,  David." 

I  said  nothing,  nor  so  much  as  lifted  my  face.  I  had 
seen  murder  done,  and  a  great,  ruddy,  jovial  gentleman 
struck  out  of  life  in  a  moment ;  the  pity  of  that  sight  was 
still  sore  within  me,  and  yet  that  was  but  a  part  of  my  con- 
cern. Here  was  murder  done  upon  the  man  Alan  hated; 
here  was  Alan  skulking  in  the  trees  and  running  from  the 
troops ;  and  whether  his  was  the  hand  that  fired  or  only  the 
head  that  ordered,  signified  but  little.  By  my  way  of  it, 
my  only  friend  in  that  wild  country  was  blood-guilty  in  the 
first  degree ;  I  held  him  in  horror ;  I  could  not  look  upon 
his  face ;  I  would  have  rather  lain  alone  in  the  rain  on  my 
cold  isle,  than  in  that  warm  wood  beside  a  murderer. 

"  Are  ye  still  wearied  ?  "  he  asked  again. 

"JSTo,"  said  I,  still  with  my  face  in  the  bracken;  "no,  I 
am  not  wearied  now,  and  I  can  speak.  You  and  me  must 
twine,"  I  said.  ''I  liked  you  very  well,  Alan;  but  your 
ways  are  not  mine,  and  they're  not  God's ;  and  the  short 
and  the  long  of  it  is  just  that  we  must  twine." 

"  I  will  hardly  twine  from  ye,  David,  without  some  kind 
of  reason  for  the  same,"  said  Alan,  gravely.  "  If  ye  ken 
anything  against  my  reputation,  it's  the  least  thing  that  ye 
should  do,  for  old  acquaintance'  sake,  to  let  me  hear  the 
name  of  it ;  and  if  ye  have  only  taken  a  distaste  to  my 
society,  it  will  be  proper  for  me  to  judge  if  I'm  insulted." 

"Alan,"  said  I,  "what  is  the  sense  of  this?  Ye  ken 
very  well  yon  Campbell-man  lies  in  his  blood  upon  the  road." 

He  was  silent  for  a  little ;  then,  says  he,  "  Did  ever  ye 
hear  tell  of  the  story  of  the  Man  and  the  Good  People  ?  "  — 
by  which  he  meant  the  fairies. 

"  No,"  said  I,  "  nor  do  I  want  to  hear  it." 

"With  your  permission,  Mr.  Balfour,  I  will  tell  it  you, 
whatever,"  says  Alan.  "  The  man,  ye  should  ken,  was  cast 
upon  a  rock  in  the  sea,  where  it  appears  the  Good  People 


CHARACTER   AND  PLOT.  267 

were  in  use  to  come  and  rest  as  they  went  through  to  Ireland. 
The  name  of  this  rock  is  called  the  Skerry  vore,  and  it's  not 
far  from  where  we  suffered  shipwreck.  Well,  it  seems  the 
man  cried  so  sore,  if  he  could  just  see  his  little  bairn  before 
he  died!  that  at  last  the  king  of  the  Good  People  took 
peety  on  him,  and  sent  one  flying  that  brought  back  the 
bairn  in  a  poke  ^  and  laid  it  down  beside  the  man  where  he 
lay  sleeping.  So  when  the  man  woke,  there  was  a  poke  be- 
side him  and  something  into  the  inside  of  it  that  moved. 
Well,  it  seems  he  was  one  of  those  gentry  that  think  aye 
the  worst  of  things ;  and  for  greater  security,  he  stuck  his 
dirk  throughout  that  poke  before  he  opened  it,  and  there 
was  his  bairn  dead.  I  am  thinking  to  myself,  Mr.  Balfour, 
that  you  and  the  man  are  very  much  alike." 

—  R.  L.  Stevenson  :  Kidnapped,  chap,  xviii. 

Character  and  Plot. 

91.  Not  less  interesting  than  the  suspense  of  the  plot 
is  the  revelation  of  striking  traits  of  character.  The 
insides  of  men's  minds  are  hidden  from  us.  Their 
words  give  us  but  a  faint  idea  of  their  real  thoughts 
and  feelings  and  motives.  We  are  always  eager  to 
probe  the  mystery.  Now  comes  the  novelist,  a  Thack- 
eray or  a  George  Eliot,  and  with  a  stroke  lays  bare  the 
inmost  recesses  of  his  hero's  mind.  The  effect  is  star- 
tling. It  is  like  looking  into  the  depths  of  the  sea  and 
finding  there  unsuspected  beauties  and  horrors. 

Certain  characters  lend  themselves  more  readily  to 
the  purposes  of  plot  construction  than  do  other  charac- 
ters. Certain  qualities  of  mind  bring  people  into  conflict 
with  their  fellow-men.      For  example,  a  cautious,  unam- 


268  NARRATION. 

bitious  man  with  all  his  wits  about  him  will  manage  to 
slip  through  the  world  and  into  his  grave  without  a 
single  adventure  ;  but  a  highly  ambitious,  impulsive, 
mettlesome  person,  with  some  striking  defects  of  char- 
acter, will  make  out  of  life  one  long  Donny brook  Fair. 
A  good  illustration  of  this  latter  type  of  character  is 
seen  in  Alan  Breck,  the  friend  of  David  Balfour,  in 
Stevenson's  Kidnapped.  No  matter  what  company  he 
is  in,  he  is  always  on  the  verge  of  a  quarrel. 

The  springs  and  impulses  to  action  on  the  part  of  the 
characters  are  known  as  their  motives.  It  is  important 
that  the  motives  and  the  acts  should  coincide.  If  the 
character  does  something  without  reason,  we  say  that  a 
motive  is  lacking.  For  example,  to  make  a  character 
say  something  funny  just  because  you  happen  to  think 
of  something  funny  that  you  want  to  put  into  the  story ; 
to  make  another  commit  a  crime  just  because  you  want 
a  crime  committed  in  that  part  of  the  story,  is  to  dis- 
regard the  motives.  Sometimes,  however,  the  motives 
are  concealed  throughout  the  course  of  the  narrative, 
and  come  to  light  only  at  the  close.  This  is  illustrated 
in  a  rather  amusing  way  by  the  following  selection  :  — 

Mr.  W.  H.  Hudson  writes  agreeably  in  Longman^ s  of 
Selborne  Revisited,  and  tells  incidentally  an  owl  story  which 
Gilbert  White  himself  need  not  have  shamed  to  own.  Mr. 
Hudson,  verifying  an  admiration  of  the  author  of  Selhorne, 
went  out  at  dusk  to  see  Alton  Church.  A  shower  came  as 
he  stood  in  the  churchyard. 

"  By  and  by  a  vague  figure  appeared  out  of  the  clouds, 
travelling  against  the  wind  towards  the  spire,  and  looking 
more  like  a  ragged  piece  of  newspaper  whirled  about  the 
heavens  than  any  living  thing.     It  was  a  white  owl,  and 


CHARACTER.  269 

after  watching  him  for  some  time  I  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  he  was  trying  to  get  to  the  vane  on  the  spire.  A  very 
idle  ambition  it  seemed,  for  although  he  succeeded  again 
and  again  in  getting  to  within  a  few  yards  of  the  point 
aimed  at,  he  was  on  each  occasion  struck  by  a  fresh  violent 
gust  and  driven  back  to  a  great  distance,  often  quite  out  of 
sight  in  the  gloom.  But  presently  he  would  reappear,  still 
struggling  to  reach  the  vane.  A  crazy  bird !  but  I  could 
not  help  admiring  his  pluck,  and  greatly  wondered  what  his 
secret  motive  in  aiming  at  that  windy  perch  could  be.  And 
at  last,  after  so  many  defeats,  he  succeeded,  and  grasped 
the  metal  cross-bar  with  his  crooked  talons.  The  wind, 
with  all  its  fury,  could  not  tear  him  from  it,  and  after  a 
little  flapping  he  was  able  to  pull  himself  up  ;  and  then, 
bending  down,  he  deliberately  wiped  his  beak  on  the  bar 
and  flew  away  !  This,  then,  had  been  his  powerful,  mysteri- 
ous motive  —  just  to  wipe  his  beak,  which  he  could  very 
well  have  wiped  on  any  branch  or  barn  roof  or  fence,  and 
saved  himself  that  tremendous  labor ! 

"This  was  an  extreme  instance  of  the  tyrannous  effect  of 
habit  on  a  wild  animal.  Doubtless  this  bird  had  been 
accustomed,  after  devouring  his  first  mouse,  to  fly  to  the 
vane,  where  he  could  rest  for  a  few  minutes,  taking  a  general 
view  of  the  place,  and  wipe  his  beak  at  the  same  time ;  and 
the  habit  had  become  so  strong  that  he  could  not  forego  his 
visit  even  on  so  tempestuous  an  evening.  His  beak,  if  he 
had  wiped  it  anywhere  but  on  that  lofty  cross-bar,  would 
have  seemed  not  quite  clean.'^ 

92.  Assignments  on  Character. 

A.  In  the  following  narrative  what  are  the  principal  traits  of 
character  of  the  registrar?  of  the  registrar's  mother?  How  are 
these  traits  brought  out  in  the  story  ?  Can  you  see  the  registrar's 
face  as  it  appeared,  first,  when  he  caught  up  the  piece  of  turf,  and 


270  NARBATION. 

second,  when  his  mother  rushed  out  of  the  cottage  ?     Describe  his 
expression  at  each  of  these  junctures. 

The  Eegistrar's  mother  lived  in  the  fishing-village,  two 
miles  down  the  coombe.  Her  cottage  leant  back  against 
the  cliff  so  closely,  that  the  boys,  as  they  follow*ed  the  path 
above,  could  toss  tabs  of  turf  down  her  chimney ;  and  this 
was  her  chief  annoyance. 

Now,  it  was  close  on  the  dinner-hour,  and  she  stood  in 
her  kitchen  beside  a  pot  of  stew  that  simmered  over  the 
wreck-wood  fire. 

Suddenly  a  great  lump  of  earth  and  grass  came  bouncing 
down  the  chimney,  striking  from  side  to  side,  and  soused 
into  the  pot,  scattering  the  hot  stew  over  the  hearthstone 
and  splashing  her  from  head  to  foot. 

Quick  as  thought,  she  caught  up  a  besom  and  rushed 
around  the  corner  of  the  cottage. 

"  You  stinking  young  adders  ! "  she  began. 

A  big  man  stood  on  the  slope  above  her. 

"Mother,  cuff  my  head,  that's  a  dear.  I  couldn't  help 
doin'  it." 

It  was  the  elderly  Registrar.  His  hat,  collar,  tie,  and 
w^aistcoat  were  awry ;  his  boots  were  slung  on  the  walking- 
stick  over  his  shoulder ;  stuck  in  his  mouth  and  lit  was 
a  twist  of  root-fibre,  such  as  country  boys  use  for  lack  of 
cigars,  and  he  himself  had  used,  forty  years  before. 

The  old  woman  turned  to  an  ash  color,  leant  on  her 
besom  and  gasped :  — 

"William  Henry!" 

"Pm  not  drunk,  mother;  been  a  Band  of  Hope  these 
dozen  years."  He  stepped  down  the  slope  to  her  and  bent 
his  head  low.  "  Box  my  ears,  mother,  quick  !  You  used  ta 
have  a  wonderful  gift  o'  cuffin'." 

"  William  Henry,  I'm  bound  to  do  it  or  die." 

"  Then  be  quick  about  it." 


CHARACTER,  271 

Half -Ian  gliing,  half-sobbing,  she  caught  him  a  feeble  cuff, 
and  next  instant  held  him  close  to  her  old  breast.  The 
Eegistrar  disengaged  himself  after  a  minute,  brushed  his 
eyes,  straightened  his  hat,  picked  up  the  besom,  and  offered 
her  his  arm.     They  passed  into  the  cottage  together. 

—  QuiLLER-CoucH :  "  When  the  Sap  Eose  "  (in  TJie 
Delectable  Duchy) . 

B.  What  traits  of  character  are  brought  out  most  clearly  in 
each  of  the  following  anecdotes,  and  by  what  methods  ?  Describe 
the  expression  and  appearance  of  the  little  girl  when  she  says, 
"  I  don't  believe  the  story  about  the  wolf ;  "  of  William  Penn  and 
the  king,  when  the  king  makes  his  reply;  of  Wendell  Phillips 
when  the  slave  gives  his  reason  for  remaining ;  of  the  ancient 
monk  when  he  sees  that  the  lamp  has  been  extinguished.  Find  for 
each  story  a  title  derived  from  the  traits  of  character  exhibited  by 
the  actors. 

1.  Here  is  an  interesting  anecdote  of  Jacob  Grimm.  Some 
of  our  readers  will  remember  that  one  of  his  prettiest  tales 
ends  with  the  words  "  whoever  refuses  to  believe  this  story 
owes  me  a  thaler."  One  winter  morning  a  little  Jewish  girl 
rang  the  door-bell  and  asked  the  servant  if  Herr  Professor 
Jacob  Grimm  was  at  home.  When  informed  that  he  was 
not,  she  said  politely,  "  Will  you  please  hand  him  this 
thaler  when  he  returns  ? "  The  servant  took  the  coin, 
glanced  at  it  curiously,  and  inquired  who  sent  it  and  what 
it  was  for.  "  I  owe  him  the  money  myself,"  said  the  little 
girl.  "  Why  ?  What  for  ?  "  "  Because  I  don't  believe  the 
story  about  the  wolf." 

2.  Charles  the  Second  once  granted  an  audience  to  the 
courtly  Quaker,  William  Penn,  who,  as  was  his  custom, 
entered  the  royal  presence  with  his  hat  on.  The  humorous 
sovereign  quietly  laid  aside  his  own,  which  occasioned  Penn's 
inquiry  :  "  Friend  Charles,  why  dost  thou  remove  thy  hat  ?  " 


272  NARRATION. 

"  It  is  the  custom/'  he  replied,  "  in  this  place  for  one  person 
only  to  remain  covered." 

3.  Before  the  civil  war  Wendell  Phillips,  the  di  stinguished 
abolitionist,  went  to  Charlestown,  and  put  up  at  a  hotel.  He 
had  breakfast  served  in  his  room,  and  was  waited  upon  by 
a  slave.  Mr.  Phillips  seized  the  opportunity  to  represent  to 
the  negro  in  a  pathetic  way  that  he  regarded  him  as  a  man 
and  brother,  and,  more  than  that,  that  he  himself  was  an 
abolitionist.  The  negro,  however,  seemed  more  anxious 
about  the  breakfast  than  he  was  about  his  position  in  the 
social  scale  or  the  condition  of  his  soul,  and  finally  Mr. 
Phillips  became  discouraged  and  told  him  to  go  away,  say- 
ing that  he  could  not  bear  to  be  waited  on  by  a  slave. 
''  You  must  'sense  me,  massa,"  said  the  negro  ;  "  I  is  'bliged 
to  stay  here  'cause  Pm  'sponsible  for  de  silverware." 

4.  Mahomet  made  the  people  believe  that  he  would  call 
a  hill  to  him,  and  from  the  top  of  it  offer  up  his  prayers  for 
the  observance  of  his  law.  The  people  assembled.  Ma- 
homet called  the  hill  to  come  to  him  again  and  again  ;  and 
when  the  hill  stood  still  he  was  never  a  whit  abashed,  but 
said,  "  If  the  hill  will  not  come  to  Mahomet,  Mahomet  will 
go  to  the  hill." 

5.  A  certain  traveller  of  practical  mind  once  visited  a 
famous  shrine  where  a  holy  lamp  had  been  kept  burning  for 
five  and,  as  some  said,  for  eight  hundred  years. 

An  ancient  monk  showed  him  the  lamp.  "Yes,  noble 
Pilgrim,"  he  said,  "  I  have  watched  it  for  sixty  years,  and 
the  good  father  who  was  before  me,  he  tended  it  for  seventy- 
one,  so  that  the  everlasting  flame  has  had  but  two  guardians 
in  a  hundred  and  thirty  years." 

"  And  before  that  ?  "  asked  the  traveller. 

''  Before  that,  noble  Pilgrim  ?  Ah !  we  do  not  know. 
All  we  know,  for  the  books  show  it,  is  that  the  everlasting 


CHARACTER.  273 

flame  has  not  been  out  for  five  hundred  years ;  it  is  said, 
indeed,  for  eight  hundred,  but  that  is  tradition.  Here  is  a 
copy  of  the  book  —  would  his  excellency  like  to  see  it  ?  " 
—  and  the  monk  turned  to  reach  down  the  volume. 

"  Never  been  out  ?  "  Puff.  "  Well,''  added  the  traveller 
reflectively,  "anyway,  I  guess  that  it  is  out  now! " 

C.  Observe  how  the  characters  of  Lord  Dudley  and  Washington 
are  brought  out  in  the  anecdotes  below.  Try  to  exhibit  in  an 
equally  striking  way,  by  means  of  a  similar  anecdote,  the  character 
of  an  acquaintance. 

1.  Lord  Dudley  was  regular  as  clock-work  —  not  only  in 
his  hours  but  also  in  his  habits.  He  could  not  dine  comfort- 
ably without  apple-pie,  which,  properly  made,  is  a  wholesome 
and  excellent  dish.  Dining,  when  Foreign  Secretary,  at 
Prince  Esterhazy's  —  a  grand  dinner  —  he  was  terribly  put 
out  on  finding  that  his  favorite  delicacy  was  wanting,  and 
kept  murmuring,  pretty  audibly,  in  his  absent  way,  "  God 
bless  my  soul,  no  apple-pie  ! " 

2.  When  Stuart  was  painting  Washington's  portrait,  he 
was  rallied  one  day  by  the  General  for  his  slow  work.  The 
painter  protested  that  the  picture  could  not  advance  until 
the  canvas  was  dry,  and  that  there  must  be  yet  some  delay. 
Upon  arriving  next  morning,  Stuart  turned  his  canvas  and 
discovered,  to  his  great  horror,  that  the  picture  was  spoiled. 

"  General,"  said  he,  "  somebody  has  held  this  picture  to 
the  fire." 

Washington  summoned  his  negro  valet,  Sam,  and  de- 
manded of  him,  in  great  indignation,  who  had  dared  to 
touch  the  portrait.  The  trembling  Sam  replied,  that,  chanc- 
ing to  overhear  Washington's  expression  of  impatience  at 
the  slowness  of  the  work,  and  the  response  of  the  artist 
that  it  must  dry  before  he  could  go  on,  he  had  ventured 
to  put  the  canvas  before  the  fire.     Washington,  with  great 


274  NARRATION. 

anger,  dismissed  him,  and  told  him  not  to  show  his  face 
again. 

But  the  next  day,  after  Stuart  had  arrived  and  was  pre- 
paring to  work,  Washington  rang  the  bell,  and  sent  for  Sam. 
He  came  in  abashed  and  trembling.  The  President  drew  a 
new  silver  watch  from  his  pocket,  and  said :  — 

"  Come  here,  Sam.  Take  this  watch,  and  whenever  you 
look  at  it,  remember  that  your  master,  in  a  moment  of  pas- 
sion, said  to  you  what  he  now  regrets,  and  that  he  was  not 
ashamed  to  confess  that  he  had  done  so." 

Conversation  and  Dialogue. 

93.  The  parts  of  a  story  in  which  the  characters  speak 
in  their  own  person  are  always  highly  interesting.  Most 
readers  turn  with  satisfaction  from  the  solid  page  in 
which  things  are  reported  by  the  author  in  his  own 
words,  to  the  page  that  is  broken  by  conversation  and 
dialogue  of  the  characters  themselves.  Good  conversa- 
tion gives  added  life  and  significance  to  the  story.  It 
is  part  of  the  very  genius  of  narrative  since  it  carries 
the  story  forward,  whereas  descriptive  passages  (often 
intentionally  and  properly)  seem  to  delay  the  story. 
Readers  who  have  the  bad  habit  of  "  skipping  "  seldom 
skip  the  conversations.  It  is  not  always  possible,  or 
best,  to  use  conversation  in  a  story,  and  good  conversa- 
tion is  the  hardest  part  of  a  story  to  write ;  yet  every 
story  may  contain  some. conversation,  and  it  is  a  good 
plan  to  use  conversation  -vvrherever  it  suggests  itself. 

Good  conversation  should  accomplish  one  or  both  of 
two  things  for  the  story. 

(1)  It  should  give  hints  of  character;  the  reader 
makes   constant  inferences  about  the   speaker's  traits 


CONVERSATION  AND  DIALOGUE,  275 

from  his  talk.  We  infer  also  differences  in  the  cjiarac- 
ters  from  what  they  say.  When  all  of  the  conversation 
of  a  given  speaker  causes  the  reader  to  make  harmonious 
and  consistent  inferences  about  that  speaker's  character, 
the  talk  of  that  speaker  is  said  to  be  in  character.  When 
any  remark  of  a  speaker  causes  an  inference  not  intended 
by  the  author,  the  remark  is  said  to  be  not  in  character, 
because  inconsistent  with  the  conception  that  had  been 
given.  To  make  interesting  conversation  that  shall  at 
the  same  time  be  significant  is  the  aim  of  every  story- 
teller. 

(2)  Conversation  should  also  give  hints  of  action  ;  it 
should  help  on  the  plot ;  if  it  does  not  actually  carry 
the  plot  forward,  it  should  deepen  our  sense  of  its  sig- 
nificance. It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  in  some 
stories  the  cleverness  of  the  conversation  is  prized  for 
its  own  sake,  regardless  of  other  considerations. 

• 
94.    Assignments  on  Conversation  and  Dialogue. 

A.  What  inferences  of  character  and  personal  traits  do  you 
make  from  the  conversation  of  the  following  story?  What  lines 
carry  forward  the  plot  ? 

They  nicknamed  him  Corp  because  he  took  fits,  when  he 
lay  like  one  dead.  He  was  proud  of  his  fits,  was  Corp,  but 
they  were  a  bother  to  him,  too,  because  he  could  make  so 
little  of  them.  They  interested  doctors  and  other  carriage 
folk,  who  came  to  his  aunt's  house  to  put  their  fingers  into 
him,  and  gave  him  sixpence,  and  would  have  given  him 
more,  but  when  they  pressed  him  to  tell  them  what  he  re- 
membered about  his  fits,  he  could  only  answer  dejectedly, 
"  Not  a  thing." 

^'  You  might  just  as  well  no  have  them  ava,"  his  wrathful 


276,  NARRATION, 

aunt,  with  whom  he  lived,  would  say,  and  she  thrashed  him 
until  his  size  forbade  it. 

Soon  after  the  Muckley  came  word  that  the  Lady  of  the 
Spittal  was  to  be  brought  to  see  Corp  by  Mr.  Ogilvy,  the 
schoolmaster  of  Glen  Quharity,  and  at  first  Corp  boasted  of 
it,  but  as  the  appointed  day  drew  near,  he  became  uneasy. 

"  The  worst  o't,"  he  said  to  any  one  who  would  listen,  *^  is 
that  my  auntie  is  to  be  away  frae  hame,  and  so  they'll  put 
a'  their  questions  to  me.'' 

The  Haggerty-Taggertys  and  Birkie  were  so  jealous  that 
they  said  they  were  glad  they  never  had  fits,  but  Tommy 
made  no  such  pretence. 

"  Oh,  Corp,  if  I  had  thae  fits  of  yours ! "  he  exclaimed 
greedily. 

"  If  they  were  mine  to  give  awa',"  replied  Corp,  sullenly, 
"you  could  have  them  and  welcome."  Grown  meek  in  his 
trouble,  he  invited  Tommy  to  speak  freely,  with  the  result 
that  his  eyes  were  partially  opened  to  the  superiority  of 
that  boy's  attainments.  Tommy  told  him  a  number  of  in- 
teresting things  to  say  to  Mr.  Ogilvy  and  the  lady  about  his 
fits,  about  how  queer  he  felt  just  before  they  came  on,  and 
the  visions  he  had  while  he  was  lying  stiff.  But  though 
the  admiring  Corp  gave  attentive  ear,  he  said  hopelessly  next 
day,  "  Not  a  dagont  thing  do  I  mind.  When  they  question 
me  about  my  fits,  I'll  just  say  I'm  sometimes  in  them  and 
sometimes  out  o'  them,  and  if  they  badger  me  more,  I  can 
aye  kick." 

Tommy  gave  him  a  look  that  meant,  "  Fits  are  just  wasted 
on  you,"  and  Corp  replied  with  another  that  meant,  "  I  ken 
they  are."     Then  they  parted,  one  of  them  to  reflect. 

"Corp,"  he  said  excitedly,  when  next  they  met,  "has 
Mr.  Ogilvy  or  the  lady  ever  come  to  see  you  afore  ?  " 

They  had  not,  and  Corp  was  able  to  swear  that  they  did 
not  even  know  him  by  sight. 


CONVERSATION  AND  DIALOGUE.  277 

"  They  dinna  ken  me  either,"  said  Tommy. 

"  What  does  that  matter  ?  "  asked  Corp,  but  Tommy  was 
too  full  to  speak.     He  had  "  found  a  way." 

The  lady  and  Mr.  Ogilvy  found  Corp  such  a  success 
that  the  one  gave  him  a  shilling  and  the  other  took  down 
his  reminiscences  in  a  note-book.  But  if  you  would  hear  of 
the  rings  of  blue  and  white  and  yellow  Corp  saw,  and  of 
the  other  extraordinary  experiences  he  described  himself  as 
having  when  in  a  fit,  you  need  not  search  that  note-book, 
for  the  page  has  been  torn  out.  Instead  of  making  inquiries 
of  Mr.  Ogilvy,  try  any  other  dominie  in  the  district,  Mr. 
Cathro,  for  instance,  who  delighted  to  tell  the  tale.  This, 
of  course,  was  when  it  leaked  out  that  Tommy  had  person- 
ated Corp,  by  arrangement  with  the  real  Corp,  who  was 
listening  in  rapture  beneath  the  bed. 

—  Barrie:  Sentimental  Tommy. 

B.  Preserving  the  general  form  of  the  following  dialogue, 
supply  incidents  and  motives  which  will  make  this  commonplace 
conversation  momentous  in  its  significance  to  both  speakers :  — 

The  Oeneral.  You  will  see  that  the  prisoner  is  hanged  at 
daybreak.     By  the  way,  have  you  learned  his  name  ? 

Tlie  Colonel.    He  still  refuses  to  disclose  it. 

The  Oeneral.  Oh,  does  he  ?  Well,  he  doubtless  wishes 
to  spare  the  feelings  of  his  relatives.  It  would  be  extremely 
unpleasant  to  read  in  the  dispatches  that  a  brother  or  a  son 
had  been  hanged  for  a  spy  —  eh  ? 

The  Colonel.     It  would  be  horrible. 

The  General.  But  he  will  let  the  secret  out  before  he 
swings.  They  always  do.  Perhaps  you  had  better  report 
to  me  after  the  affair  is  over.  I  am  anxious  to  know  who 
he  is.  He  is  not  a  bad  looking  fellow.  It  struck  me  as  I 
was  examining  him  yesterday  —  no  offence,  mind  —  that  he 


278  NARRATION. 

looked  something  as  you.  did  when  I  first  met  you,  twenty 
years  ago. 

.  TJie  Colonel.    I  noticed  it. 

The  General  You  did,  eh  ?  Then  I  was  right.  Well,  I 
shall  expect  you  before  breakfast.  You  will  need  some- 
thing to  cheer  you  up. 

The  Colonel   I  shall  indeed. 

The  General    Good  night. 

C.     Try  one  of  the  following :  — 

1.  A  conversation  between  two  girls  to  show  that  one  feels 
superior  to  the  other  in  good  taste  in  dress.  Let  them  comment 
on  a  third  person,  not  on  one  another. 

2.  A  conversation  between  two  boys  on  the  merits  of  a  certain 
member  of  the  team,  to  show  that  one  is  prejudiced.  If  possible, 
let  this  in  part  reproduce  an  actual  conversation. 

3.  A  conversation  between  a  person  who  uses  very  precise  lan- 
guage and  one  who  makes  shocking  blunders  unexpectedly. 

4.  A  conversation  between  a  very  pompous  man  who  has  lost 
his  way,  and  a  policeman. 

5.  A  conversation  between  two  laborers  about  Halley's  Comet. 

Kinds  of  Narrative. 

95.  The  account  of  narrative  which  has  been  given 
thus  far  is  that  of  the  fictitious  narrative.  We  must 
not  overlook  the  fact  that  there  are  real  stories  as  well 
as  fictitious  stories.  History  and  biography  are  as  im- 
portant as  novels.  But  the  principles  that  have  been 
laid  down  apply  with  equal  force  to  writing  of  both 
kinds.  The  charm  of  history  and  biography  arises  in 
large  part  from  the  fact  that  in  them  the  writer  shows 
the  struggle  of  men  with  men  and  of  men  with  the 
obstacles  of  life,  or  that  he  makes  striking  revelations 


MISCELLANEOUS  ASSIGNMENTS.  279 

of  character.  Selection,  unity,  culmination  of  interest, 
are  quite  as  important  in  the  true  story,  if  it  is  also  to 
be  an  interesting  story,  as  in  the  fictitious  story. 

96.  Miscellaneous  Assignments. 

A.  Write  the  biography  of  some  person  unknown  to  fame 
whose  character  you  admire.  Use  a  fictitious  name  but  tell  a  true 
story.     It  may  be  a  biography  of  a  near  relative. 

B.  Tell  some  episode  in  the  history  of  your  own  city,  county, 
or  state.     Emphasize  the  personality  of  the  actors  in  the  story. 

C.  Retell  in  your  own  words  the  following  narrative  from 
Pepys's  Diary,  adding  such  incidents  as  may  be  necessary  to  make 
a  good  story  of  it.  For  a  longer  account  of  the  great  fire,  see 
other  passages  of  the  Diary,  under  date  of  September,  1666,  and 
read  Knight's  London,  vol.  i,  pp.  492-494. 

Soon  as  dined,  I  and  Moone  away,  and  walked  through 
the  City,  the  streets  full  of  nothing  but  people  and  horses 
and  carts  loaden  with  goods,  ready  to  run  over  one  another, 
and  removing  goods  from  one  burned  house  to  another. 
They  are  now  removing  out  of  Canning-streete,  (which 
received  goods  in  the  morning)  into  Lumbarde-streete,  and 
further ;  and  among  others  I  now  saw  my  little  goldsmith, 
Stokes,  receiving  some  friend's  goods,  whose  house  itself 
was  burned  the  day  after.  We  parted  at  PauPs ;  he  home, 
and  I  to  PauPs  Wharf  where  I  had  appointed  a  boat  to 
attend  me,  and  took  in  Mr.  Carcasse  and  his  brother,  whom 
I  met  in  the  streete,  and  carried  them  below  and  above 
bridge  .to  and  again  to  see  the  lire,  which  was  now  got 
further,  both  below  and  above,  and  no  likelihood  of  stop- 
ping it.  Met  with  the  King  and  Duke  of  York  in  their 
barge,  and  with  them  to  Queenhithe,  and  there  called  Sir 
Richard  Browne  to  them.  Their  order  was  only  to  pull 
down  houses  apace,  and  so  below  bridge  at  the  water-side ; 


280  NARRATION, 

but  little  was  or  could  be  done,  the  fire  coming  upon  them 
so  fast.  Good  hopes  there  was  of  stopping  it  at  the  Three 
Cranes  above,  and  at  Buttolph's  Wharf  below  bridge,  if  care 
be  used;  but  the  wind  carries  it  into  the  City,  so  as  we 
know  not  by  the  water-side  what  it  do  there.  Eiver  full 
of  lighters  and  boats  taking  in  goods,  and  good  goods  swim- 
ming in  the  water,  and  only  I  observed  that  hardly  one 
lighter  in  three  that  had  the  goods  of  a  house  in,  but  there 
was  a  pair  of  Virginalls  in  it.  Having  seen  as  much  as  I 
could  now,  I  .away  to  White  Hall  by  appointment,  and  there 
walked  to  St.  James's  Parke,  and  there  met  my  wife  and 
Creed  and  Wood  and  his  wife,  and  walked  to  my  boat ;  and 
there  upon  the  water  again,  and  to  the  fire  up  and  down,  it 
still  increasing  and  the  wind  great.  So  near  the  fire  as  we 
could  for  smoke ;  and  all  over  the  Thames,  with  one's  face 
in  the  wind,  you  were  almost  burned  with  a  shower  of  fire- 
drops.  This  is  very  true;  so  as  houses  were  burned  by 
these  drops  and  flakes  of  fire,  three  or  four,  nay  five  or  six 
houses,  one  from  another.  When  we  could  endure  no  more 
upon  the  water,  we  to  a  little  ale-house  on  the  bank-side, 
over  against  the  Three  Cranes,  and  there  staid  until  it  was 
dark  almost,  and  saw  the  fire  grow ;  and,  as  it  grew  darker, 
appeared  more  and  more,  and  in  corners  and  upon  steeples, 
and  between  churches  and  houses,  as  far  as  we  could  see  up 
the  hill  of  the  City,  in  a  most  horrid  malicious  bloody  flame, 
not  like  the  fine  flame  of  an  ordinary  fire.  Barbary  and 
her  husband  away  before  us.  We  staid  till,  it  being  darkish, 
we  saw  the  fire  as  only  one  entire  arch  of  fire  from  this  to 
the  other  side  the  bridge,  and  in  a  bow  up  the  hill  for  an 
arch  of  above  a  mile  long :  it  made  me  weep  to  see  it.  The 
churches,  houses,  and  all  on  fire  and  flaming  at  once ;  and  a 
horrid  noise  the  flames  made,  and  the  cracking  of  houses 
at  their  ruine.  So  home  with  a  sad  heart,  and  there  find 
everybody  discoursing   and  lamenting  the  fire ;   and  poor 


MISCELLANEOUS  ASSIGNMENTS.  281 

Tom  Hater  come  with  some  few  of  his  goods  saved  out  of 
his  house,  which  is  burned  upon  Fish-streete  Hill.  I  in- 
vited him  to  lie  at  my  house,  and  did  receive  his  goods,  but 
was  deceived  in  his  lying  there,  the  newes  coming  every 
moment  of  the  growth  of  the  fire  ;  so  as  we  were  forced  to 
begin  to  pack  up  our  owne  goods,  and  prepare  for  their 
removal;  and  did  by  moonshine  (it  being  brave  dry,  and 
moonshine  and  Avarm  weather)  carry  much  of  my  goods 
into  the  garden,  and  Mr.  Hater  and  I  did  remove  my  money 
and  iron  chests  into  my  cellar,  as  thinking  that  the  safest 
place.  And  got  my  bags  of  gold  into  my  office,  ready  to 
carry  away,  and  my  chief  papers  of  accounts  also  there,  and 
my  tallys  into  a  box  by  themselves.  So  great  was  our  fear, 
as  Sir  W.  Batten  hath  carts  come  out  of  the  country  to 
fetch  away  his  goods  this  night.  We  did  put  Mr.  Hater, 
poor  man,  to  bed  a  little  ;  but  he  got  but  very  little  rest,  so 
much  noise  being  in  my  house,  taking  down  of  goods. 

—  Diary  of  Samuel  Pepys,  Sept.  2,  1666. 

D.  Make  a  complete  story  out  of  the  following.  In  doing  so 
you  must  (1)  invent  the  characters;  (2)  find  proper  names  for 
them ;  (3)  add  such  incidents  and  descriptions  as  may  be  needed. 

" .  .  .  ?  "  I  asked,  when,  after  some  delay,  the  door  was 
opened. 

"...  ,"  he  replied,  rather  sarcastically.  I  had  half  a 
notion  to  reply  in  the  same  spirit,  but  better  thoughts  pre- 
vailed and  I  said  simply,  "...  ." 

He  looked  at  me  sharply,  and  frowned. 

"...?"  he  asked,  after  a  moment. 

I  was  not  prepared  for  that. 

"...,"  I  stammered,  growing  red.  A  moment  more 
and  I  should  have  taken  to  my  heels.  He  came  to  my  re- 
lief, as  I  thought.  Alas !  I  did  not  suspect  the  depths  of 
that  man's  guile. 


282  NARRATION. 

"...  ,"  he  observed  reflectively.  I  caught  him  up  be- 
fore he  had  a  chance  to  continue. 

".../'  I  said.  And  then  I  ought  to  have  stopped; 
but  my:  evil  genius  was  at  my  elbow  prompting  me,  and  on 
I  went. 

"...  /'I  added  in  a  wistful  tone. 

"...  ,"  he  suggested  encouragingly. 
-  Oh,  blind  that  I  was  !     I  thought  he  meant  it.     I  went 
on  eagerly,  fatuously. 

"  .  .  .  ,"  I  continued,  and  then,  to  cap  the  climax,  "  .  .  J' 
He  seemed  to  consider. 

"...?"  he  asked,  insinuatingly. 

"...  ,"  I  replied. 

"...  ,"  he  rejoined,  as  cool  as  brass.  It  was  a  knock- 
down blow.     I  fairly  staggered. 

"...,"  I  managed  to  say  at  last,  the  prickles  starting 
out  on  my  skin. 

He  smiled  —  as  a  blue-steel  monkey-wrench  might  have 
smiled. 

"...  ,"  he  said  quietly,  and  closed  the  door,  leaving  me, 
in  the  wet  and  the  dark,  to  the  pleasant  company  of  my 
thoughts. 

E.  1.  Account  for  the  feeling  of  suspense  with  which  one  reads 
the  following  narrative.  2.  Where  is  the  suspense  greatest?  3. 
Why?  4.  By  what  little  touches  does  the  narrator  stir  our  feel- 
ings at  certain  points?  5.  What  is  the  character  of  the  chief 
actor,  as  you  infer  it  from  the  narrative?  6.  At  what  points  in 
the  story  is  the  character  revealed  with  especial  clearness? 

Gerard  took  the  iron  bar  and  fastened  it  with  the  small 
rope  across  the  large  rope,  and  across  the  window.  He  now 
mounted  the  chest,  and  from  the  chest  put  his  foot  through 
the  window,  and  sat  half  in  and  half  out,  with  one  hand  on 
that  part  of  the  rope  which  was  inside.  In  the  silent  night 
he  heard  his  own  heart  beat. 


MISCELLANEOUS  ASSIGNMENTS.  283 

The  free  air  breathed  on  his  face,  and  gave  him  the  courage 
to  risk  what  we  must  all  lose  one  day  —  for  liberty.  Many 
dangers  awaited  him,  but  the  greatest  was  the  first  —  getting 
on  to  the  rope  outside.  Gerard  reflected.  Finally  he  put 
himself  in  the  attitude  of  a  swimmer,  his  body  to  the  waist 
being  in  the  prison,  his  legs  outside.  Then  holding  the  in- 
side rope  with  both  hands,  he  felt  anxiously  with  his  feei 
for  the  outside  rope,  and,  when  he  had  got  it,  he  worked  it 
in  between  the  palms  of  his  feet,  and  kept  it  there  tight: 
then  he  uttered  a  short  prayer,  and,  all  the  calmer  for  it, 
put  his  left  hand  on  the  sill  and  gradually  wriggled  out. 
Then  he  seized  the  iron  bar,  and  for  one  fearful  moment 
hung  outside  from  it  by  his  right  hand,  while  his  left  hand 
felt  for  the  rope  down  at  his  knees ;  it  was  too  tight  against 
the  wall  for  his  fingers  to  get  round  it  higher  up.  The 
moment  he  had  fairly  grasped  it,  he  left  the  bar  and  swiftly 
seized  the  rope  with  the  right  hand  too ;  but  in  this  ma- 
noeuvre his  body  necessarily  fell  about  a  yard.  A  stifled 
cry  came  up  from  below.  Gerard  hung  in  mid-air.  He 
clenched  his  teeth,  and  nipped  the  rope  tight  with  his  feet 
and  gripped  it  with  his  hands,  and  went  down  slowly^  hand 
below  hand.  He  passed  by  one  huge  rough  stone  after  an- 
other. He  saw  there  was  green  moss  on  one.  He  looked 
up  and  he  looked  down.  The  moon  shone  into  his  prison 
window :  it  seemed  very  near.  The  fluttering  figures  below 
seemed  an  awful  distance.  It  made  him  dizzy  to  look  down : 
so  he  fixed  his  eyes  steadily  on  the  wall  close  to  him,  and 
went  slowly  down,  down,  down. 

He  passed  a  rusty,  slimy  streak  on  the  wall :  it  was  some 
ten  feet  long.  The  rope  made  his  hands  very  hot.  He 
stole  another  look  up. 

The  prison  window  was  a  good  way  off,  now. 

Down  —  down  —  down  —  down. 

The  rope  made  his  hands  sore. 


284  NABRATION, 

He  looked  up.  The  window  was  so  distant,  he  ventured 
now  to  turn  his  eyes  downward  again :  and  there  not  more 
than  thirty  feet  below  him  were  Margaret  and  Martin,  their 
faithful  hands  upstretched  to  catch  him  should  he  fall. 
He  could  see  their  eyes  and  their  teeth  shine  in  the  moon- 
light. For  their  mouths  were  open,  and  they  were  breath- 
ing hard. 

"  Take  care,  Gerard !     Oh,  take  care !     Look  not  down." 

"  Fear  me  not,"  cried  Gerard,  joyfully,  and  eyed  the  wall, 
but  came  down  faster. 

In  another  minute  his  feet  were  at  their  hands.  They 
seized  him  ere  he  touched  the  ground,  and  all  three  clung 
together  in  one  embrace. 

—  Charles  Reade  :   The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth. 

F.  Examine  the  picture  by  Becker  (Figure  5)  of  Othello  relat- 
ing to  Desdemona  and  Brabantio  his  wonderful  adventures,  of 
which  he  says :  — 

"...  I  spake  of  most  disastrous  chances. 

Of  moving  accidents  by  flood  and  field, 

Of  hair-breadth  scapes  i'  the  imminent  deadly  breach. 

Of  being  taken  by  the  insolent  foe 

And  sold  to  slavery,  of  my  redemption  thence 

And  portance  in  my  travels'  history : 

Wherein  of  antres  vast  and  deserts  idle, 

Bough  quarries,  rocks  and  hills  whose  heads  touch  heaven, 

It  was  my  hint  to  speak,  —  such  was  the  process : 

And  of  the  Cannibals  that  each  other  eat. 

The  Anthropophagi  and  men  whose  heads 

Do  grow  beneath  their  shoulders." 

Make  up  such  a  story  as  Othello  might  be  telling  in  the  scene 
represented,  and  tell  it  as  he  might  have  told  it.  On  the  cannibals 
and  the  misshapen  men  you  will  find  some  curious  information  in 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  account  of  his  voyage  to  Guiana.     This  will 


286  NARRATION, 

show  you  what  the  people  of  that  day  were  wont  to  accept  as  true. 
Sir  John  Maundeville's  travels  may  also  be  consulted  for  the  same 
purpose. 

G.  Rewrite  Captain  King's  story  of  the  charge  of  Lee  and 
Hampton  (page  221),  putting  the  narrative  in  the  mouth  of  a 
Confederate  cavalryman. 

'  H.  Tell  briefly  the  story  of  Troy  to  a  child  of  five,  observing 
the  method  indicated  in  the  following  extract  from  one  of  Brown- 
ing's poems :  — 

My  father  was  a  scholar  and  knew  Greek. 
When  I  was  live  years  old,  I  asked  him  once, 
"  What  do  you  read  about  ?  " 

"  The  siege  of  Troy." 
"  What  is  a  siege,  and  what  is  Troy  ?  " 

Whereat 
He  piled  up  chairs  and  tables  for  a  town. 
Set  me  a-top  for  Priam,  called  our  cat 

—  Helen,  enticed  away  from  home  (he  said) 
By  wicked  Paris,  who  couched  somewhere  close 
Under  the  footstool,  being  cowardly, 

But  whom  —  since  she  was  worth  the  pains,  poor  puss  — 
Towzer  and  Tray,  —  our  dogs,  the  Atreidai,  —  sought 
By  taking  Troy  to  get  possession  of 

—  Always  when  great  Achilles  ceased  to  sulk, 
(My  pony  in  the  stable)  —  forth  would  prance 
And  put  to  flight  Hector  —  our  page-boy's  self. 

I.  Examine  carefully  Von  Roessler's  Saved  (Figure  6,  page 
287).  Be  sure  that  you  understand  every  detail  of  it.  Then  write 
a  narrative  to  which  the  picture  might  be  an  illustration. 

J.  Look  at  the  picture  entitled  Before  Paris  (Figure  8,  page 
290).  See  if  you  can  make  up  from  it  a  story  with  the  title 
Surprised. 


287 


MISCELLANEOUS  ASSIGNMENTS,  289 

K.  Make  up  a  story  that  will  account  for  the  sadness  of  Antonio 
in  the  opening  scene  of  the  Merchant  of  Venice.  Let  Antonio 
relate  the  story  to  Bassanio. 

L.  Retell  the  story  of  the  tournament  in  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
Tvanhoe.  Throw  the  narrative  into  the  form  of  a  letter  from 
Rowena  to  one  of  her  friends. 

M.  Write  the  story  suggested  by  D^taille's  VAlerte  (Figure  4, 
page  220).  Perhaps  the  following  outline  will  be  helpful :  (1)  The 
scout  receives  orders  from  the  general;  (2)  he  sets  out  on  his 
perilous  mission ;  (3)  he  discovers  the  enemy  and  is  himself  dis- 
covered;  (4)  the  pursuit;  (5)  the  scout's  trick ;  (6)  the  alarm  in 
the  village;  (7)  the  fight;  (8)  the  scout  reports  at  headquarters. 
Study  the  picture  carefully  for  the  time  of  day,  the  season  of  the 
year,  and  the  state  of  the  weather.  Imagine  the  conversation 
between  the  scout  and  the  officers  at  the  door  of  the  tavern.  Think 
how  a  man  would  speak  who  had  been  riding  for  his  life  and 
knew  that  a  body  of  the  enemy  was  following  close  upon  his 
heels.  Think  also  what  the  officers  would  say  and  do  when  they 
heard  the  news.  If  you  are  not  sure  about  the  words  in  which 
the  scout  would  make  his  report  and  the  orders  that  the  officers 
would  give,  you  had  better  inquire  of  some  one.  Anybody  who 
was  in  the  Civil  War,  or  the  Spanish  War,  should  be  able  to  tell 
you. 

N.  Expand  the  anecdote  by  Thackeray  on  page  2.  Begin  your 
story,  if  you  wish,  at  a  point  of  time  several  months  or  years 
before  the  time  of  the  original,  and  carry  it  on  as  much  farther  as 
you  think  desirable.  Invent  names  for  the  characters  and  supply 
incidents  necessary  to  fill  out  the  plot. 

0.  Tell  the  story  suggested  by  Becker's  Reading  of  the  Will 
(Figure  7,  page  288),  giving  appropriate  names  to  the  persons 
represented.  Determine  first  which  shall  be  the  leading  character 
and  what  characters  shall  be  opposed  to  him.  Then  block  out  the 
incidents  of  the  narrative. 


mjs^ 

^^    "                  

1  'IHM 

i 

1^  '»"st4fc-?;^ 

^ ■  :  ft^ 

^^^^Hp||r^V^_?^' 

''W 

1 

^^Hkki"  '  <  #:     ifalHBB 

m 

^ 

H^ 

"■*-"P^    .,:■, 

1^^^ 

:<•'«»., 
-j.^ 

/  : 

•'«»sis:^ 

^^ 

^«i§i 

290 


MISCELLANEOUS  ASSIGNMENTS. 


291 


P.  Figure  9  is  from  a  picture  by  Dagnau-Bouveret  entitled 
The  Conscripts.  Examine  the  faces  carefully  and  try  to  imagine 
how  each  one  in  the  little  company  feels,  and  what  each  one  is 


Figure  9. 


saying  to  himself  as  he  thinks  of  the  experiences  that  await  him. 
Then  try  to  weave  them  all  together  into  a  story  of  which  the 
boy  or  the  drummer  is  the  hero.  Do  not  overlook  the  woman 
standing  at  the  door  of  the  cottage. 


292  NARRATION. 

A  Type  Study  in  Narration. 

97.  The  following  story  by  Maupassant  has  been  called  by 
good  judges  a  perfect  short  story,  not  only  because  of  its  faultless 
structure  but  because  of  its  truth.  It  is  an  immutable  social  law 
that  a  man  whose  general  character  and  reputation  is  that  of  a 
rogue  cannot  prove  himself  guiltless  of  an  offence  that  fits  him.  It 
is  a  great  story  too  because  the  law  of  cause  and  effect  is  in  full 
operation ;  the  events  do  not  make  or  modify  the  character ;  the 
character  actually  creates  the  events  and  the  plot. 


A  Piece  of  String. 

By  every  road  round  Goderville  the  countrymen  with  their 
wives  were  coming  toward  the  town,  for  it  was  market-day. 
The  men  plodded  on,  their  bodies  lurching  forward  at  every 
movement  of  their  long  twisted  limbs  which  were  deformed 
by  hard  work  —  by  holding  the  plough,  which  throws  up  the 
left  shoulder  and  twists  the  figure ;  by  mowing  grain  which 
forces  out  the  knees  in  the  effort  to  stand  quite  steady  ;  in 
short,  by  all  the  tedious  and  painful  toil  of  the  fields.  Their 
blue  blouses  starched  and  shining  as  if  they  had  been  var- 
nished, with  collar  and  cuffs  stitched  in  a  neat  design,  were 
inflated  about  their  bony  forms,  exactly  like  balloons  ready 
to  soar,  but  putting  forth  a  head,  two  arms,  and  two  legs. 

Some  were  leading  a  cow  or  a  calf  by  a  rope;  and,  just 
behind,  their  wives  lashed  the  animal  over  the  back  with  a 
leafy  branch,  to  hasten  its  pace.  On  their  arms  the  women 
carried  large  baskets,  whence  protruded  the  heads  of  chick- 
ens or  ducks ;  and  they  walked  with  shorter,  quicker  steps 
than  the  men ;  their  withered,  upright  figures  wrapped  in 
scanty  little  shawls  pinned  over  their  flat  breasts,  their  hair 
closely  done  up  in  white  cloths,  with  a  cap  above. 

Now  a  cart  passed  by,  jerked  along  by  an  ambling  nag 
and  it  shook  up  queerly  the  two  men  sitting  side  by  side 


A   PIECE  OF  STRING.  293 

and  a  woman  at  the  bottom  of  the  vehicle  who  held  on  to 
the  sides  to  ease  the  heavy  jolting. 

In  the  market-place  at  Goderville  a  crowd  had  gathered, 
a  mingled  multitude  of  men  and  beasts.  The  horns  of  the 
cattle,  the  tall,  long-napped  hats  of  the  rich  peasants,  and 
the  head-dresses  of  the  peasant  women  rose  above  the  sur- 
face of  that  living  sea;  and  the  harsh,  shrill,  squeaking 
voices  made  a  continuous  and  savage  roar ;  while  at  times 
there  rose  above  it  a  burst  of  laughter  from  the  husky  throat 
of  an  amused  country  fellow,  or  the  long-drawn  moo  of  a  cow 
tied  to  a  wall. 

Master  Hauchecorne,  of  Breaute,  had  just  arrived  at 
Goderville,  and  was  making  his  way  toward  the  market- 
place when  he  saw  on  the  ground  a  little  piece  of  string. 
Master  Hauchecorne,  economical  like  all  true  Normans,  con- 
sidered everything  worth  picking  up  which  might  be  of  use ; 
so  he  stooped  painfully  down,  for  he  suffered  from  rheuma- 
tism, took  the  bit  of  twine  from  the  ground,  and  was  prepar- 
ing to  roll  it  up  with  care,  when  he  noticed  Master  Malandain 
the  harness-maker  on  his  door-step,  looking  at  him.  They 
had  once  had  a  difference  in  regard  to  a  halter,  and  they  re- 
mained angry,  with  ill-will  on  both  sides.  Master  Hauche- 
corne was  seized  with  a  feeling  of  shame  at  being  caught 
thus  by  his  enemy  looking  in  the  dirt  for  a  piece  of  string. 
He  hastily  concealed  his  find  under  his  blouse,  then  in  the 
pocket  of  his  trousers ;  then  he  pretended  still  to  be  looking 
on  the  ground  for  something  he  failed  to  find,  and  at  last 
went  away  toward  the  market-place,  his  head  thrust  forward, 
his  body  doubled  up  by  his  pains. 

The  women  had  placed  their  great  baskets  at  their  feet ; 
and  they  drew  out  their  poultry  and  placed  it  on  the 
ground,  where  it  lay  with  legs  tied,  scared  eye,  and  scarlet 
comb. 

They  listened  to  offers,  dryly  maintaining  their  price  with 


294  NARRATION, 

impassive  countenance ;  or,  all  at  once  deciding  to  accept  the 
proposed  reduction,  they  cried  out  to  the  customer  who  was 
slowly  moving  away  :  — 

"Oh,  say,  Mas'  Anthime,  I'll  let  you  have  it." 

Then  little  by  little  the  market-place  was  emptied,  and 
when  the  Angelus  sounded  noon,  those  who  lived  at  a  dis- 
tance, scattered  to  the  inns. 

At  Jourdain's  the  great  dining-room  was  filled  with  eaters, 
just  as  the  vast  court  was  filled  with  vehicles  of  every  kind 
—  carts,  gigs,  Avagons,  tilburies,  nameless  tilt-carts,  yellow 
with  mud,  misshapen,  patched,  their  shafts  pointing  to  the 
skies  like  two  arms,  or  else  their  noses  to  the  ground  and 
their  tails  in  the  air. 

Opposite  the  diners  as  they  sat  at  table  the  fire  burned 
freely  in  the  huge  chimney,  throwing  out  a  lively  warmth 
upon"  the  backs  of  the  row  upon  the  right.  On  three  spits 
chickens,  pigeons,  and  legs  of  lamb  were  turning  before  the 
fire ;  and  a  savory  odor  of  roast  meat,  and  of  gravy  stream- 
ing over  its  crisp,  brown  surface,  floated  up  from  the  hearth, 
kindling  the  appetite  till  the  mouth  watered  for  the  viands. 

All  the  aristocracy  of  the  plough  were  eating  there  with 
Master  Jourdain,  innkeeper  and  horse-dealer,  a  knave  whose 
pockets  were  well  lined. 

The  plates  went  round,  and  were  emptied,  as  were  the 
jugs  of  yellow  cider.  Each  told  of  his  affairs,  his  bargains, 
and  his  sales,  and  all  discussed  the  crops.  The  season  was 
good  for  vegetables,  but  a  little  wet  for  grain. 

All  at  once  the  rub-a-dub  of  the  drum  sounded  in  the  court 
before  the  house.  In  a  moment  every  man  was  on  his  feet 
(save  some  of  the  more  indifferent)  and  rushed  to  door  or 
windows,  his  mouth  still  full,  and  his  napkin  in  his  hand. 

After  he  had  finished  his  tattoo,  the  public  crier  raised  his 
voice,  launching  his  jerky  phrases  with  pauses  quite  out  of 
place: 


f 

A   PIECE  OF  STRING.  295 

"Be  it  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  Goderville,  and  in 
general  to  all  persons  present  at  the  market,  that  there  has 
been  lost  this  morning,  on  the  road  from  Beuzeville,  between 
nine  and  ten  o'clock,  a  black  leather  pocket-book,  containing 
five  hundred  francs  and  business  papers.  Yon  are  requested 
to  return  it  to  the  mayor's  office  without  delay,  or  to  Master 
Fortune  Houlbreque,  of  Manneville.  There  will  be  a  twenty 
francs  reward." 

So  the  meal  went  on. 

As  they  were  draining  their  coffee  cups,  a  police  officer 
appeared  on  the  threshold.  He  asked :  "  Is  Master  Hauche- 
corne,  of  Breaute,  here  ?  " 

Master  Hauchecorne,  who  was  seated  at  the  opposite  end 
of  the  table,  answered :  "  That's  me." 

The  officer  replied :  "  Master  Hauchecorne,  will  you  have 
the  kindness  to  accompany  me  to  the  office  of  the  mayor  ? 
His  honor,  the  mayor,  wishes  to  speak  with  you." 

The  farmer,  surprised,  disturbed,  finished  his  glass  at  a 
gulp,  rose  and,  even  more  bent  than  in  the  morning,  since 
the  first  steps  after  each  period  of  rest  were  particularly 
difficult,  he  started  along,  saying  over  and  over:  "That's 
me,  that's  me." 

So  he  followed  the  officer. 

The  mayor  was  waiting  for  him,  seated  in  an  armchair. 
He  was  the  notary  of  the  district,  a  big,  severe  man,  pom- 
pous in  his  speech.  "  Master  Hauchecorne,"  said  he,  "  you 
were  seen  this  morning  to  pick  up,  on  the  road  from  Beuze- 
ville, the  pocket-book  lost  by  master  Houlbreque,  of  Manne- 
ville." 

The  old  fellow  stood  looking  at  the  mayor,  speechless,  al- 
ready terrified  by  the  suspicion  that  rested  upon  him,  with- 
out in  the  least  knowing  why.  '•  Me,  me  !  I  picked  up  that 
pocket-book  ?  " 

"  Yes,  you." 


296  NARRATION. 

"  Word  of  honor,  I  don't  know  nothing  about  it  at  all.'' 

"  You  were  seen." 

"  Seen  ?     Me  ?     Who  says  he  saw  me  ?  " 

"  M.  Malandain,  the  harness-maker." 

Then  the  old  man  remembered,  understood ;  and,  redden- 
ing with  anger,  he  said :  "  Uh !  'e  saw  me,  did  'e,  the  rat. 
'E  saw  me  pick  up  this  string  here;  see  here,  your  honor." 
And,  fumbling  at  the  bottom  of  his  pocket,  he  drew  out  a 
little  piece  of  twine. 

But  the  mayor  incredulously  shook  his  head.  ''  You  will 
not  make  me  believe,  Master  Hauchecorne,  that  M.  Malandain, 
who  is  a  man  of  his  word,  has  mistaken  this  string  for  a 
pocket-book." 

The  farmer,  furious,  raising  his  hand  and  spitting  to 
attest  his  good  faith,  repeated :  "  Nevertheless,  it  is  the  truth 
of  the  good  God,  the  solemn  truth,  your  honor.  There !  on 
my  soul  and  salvation,  I  swear  it." 

The  mayor  replied :  "After  you  had  picked  up  the  object, 
you  even  hunted  about  a  long  time  in  the  dust,  to  see  if  some 
piece  of  money  had  not  slipped  out  of  it." 

The  man  was  stifled  with  indignation  and  fear.  "  How 
can  they  tell !  how  can  they  tell !  —  such  lies  as  that  to  libel 
an  honest  man !     How  can  they  tell ! " 

He  might  protest ;  no  one  believed  him. 

He  was  confronted  with  M.  Malandain,  who  repeated  and 
sustained  his  declaration.  They  abused  one  another  for  an 
hour.  At  his  request.  Master  Hauchecorne  was  searched. 
Nothing  was  found  on  him. 

At  last  the  mayor,  much  perplexed,  sent  him  away, 
warning  him  that  he  would  lay  the  matter  before  the  court 
and  ask  for  instructions. 

The  news  had  spread.  On  his  leaving  the  mayor's 
office,  the  old  man  was  surrounded  and  questioned  with  a 
curiosity  that   was  serious  or  jesting,  but  into  which  no 


A   PIECE  OF  STRING.  297 

indignation  entered.  And  he  proceeded  to  tell  the  story  of 
the  string. 

They  did  not  believe  him.     They  laughed. 

He  went  along,  stopped  by  every  one,  stopping  his  ac- 
quaintances again  and  again,  going  all  over  his  story  and 
repeating  his  protestations,  showing  his  pockets  turned  in- 
side out  to  prove  there  was  nothing  in  them. 

They  said  to  him :  "  Go  on,  you  old  rogue !" 

And  he  grew  angry,  working  himself  into  a  fever,  desper- 
ate at  not  being  believed,  for  he  did  not  know  what  to  do, 
and  kept  telling  his  story  over  and  over. 

Night  came  on.  It  was  time  to  go  home.  He  set  out 
along  the  road  with  three  of  his  neighbors  to  whom  he 
showed  the  place  where  he  had  picked  up  the  bit  of  cord; 
and  all  along  the  road  he  kept  talking  of  the  incident. 

That  evening  he  made  the  round  in  the  village  of  Breaute, 
to  let  everybody  know.  He  told  his  story  only  to  the  in- 
credulous. 

He  was  ill  of  it  all  night. 

The  next  day,  about  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  Marius 
Paumelle,  a  laborer  on  the  farm  of  Master  Breton,  a  gar- 
dener at  Ymauville,  returned  the  pocket-book  and  its  con- 
tents to  Master  Houlbreque  of  Manneville. 

The  news  spread.  Master  Hauchecorne  was  informed  of 
it.  He  started  off  at  once,  and  immediately  began  to  retell 
the  story  as  completed  by  the  denouement.  He  was  tri- 
umphant. 

"  I  di'n'  care  so  much  for  the  thing  itself,  you  understand," 
said  he,  "  but  it  was  the  lie.  There  is  nothing  nastier  than 
being  set  down  for  a  liar." 

All  day  he  talked  of  his  adventure ;  he  told  it  on  the 
road  to  the  people  who  passed,  at  the  public  house  to  the 
people  who  drank,  and  the  next  Sunday  to  those  who  gath- 
ered at  the  church.     He  even  stopped  strangers  to  tell  them 


298  naubation, 

about  it.  Now  he  felt  easy,  and  yet  something  troubled 
him  without  his  knowing  exactly  what ;  people  seemed  to 
smile  as  they  listened.  They  did  not  appear  convinced. 
He  felt  as  if  they  babbled  behind  his  back. 

On  Tuesday  of  the  next  week,  he  went  to  market  at 
Goderville,  impelled  solely  by  the  longing  to  tell  his  story. 

Malandain,  standing  in  his  doorway,  began  to  laugh  when 
he  saw  him  coming.     Why  ? 

He  accosted  a  farmer  from  Oriquetot,  who  did  not  let  him 
finish,  but  poked  him  in  the  pit  of  his  stomach,  and  shouted 
in  his  face  :  "  Go  on,  you  old  fox  ! ''  Then  he  turned  on  his 
heel. 

Master  Hauchecorne  was  speechless,  and  more  and  more 
disturbed.     Why  did  he  call  him  ^'  old  fox  '^  ?  . 

When  he  sat  down  at  the  table  at  Jourdain's,  he  proceeded 
to  explain  the  affair. 

A  horse-dealer  of  Montivilliers  cried  at  him :  "  Come, 
come,  now,  you  old  scamp,  we  know  all  about  you  and  your 
piece  of  string." 

"  But  they  found  the  pocket-book  !  " 

The  other  went  on :  "  Don't  speak  of  it,  daddy ;  there  is 
one  who  finds  it  and  one  who  takes  it  back.  No  one  sees, 
no  one  knows :  but  you  give  yourself  away.  " 

The  peasant  sat  dum  founded ;  he  understood  at  last. 
They  accused  him  of  having  sent  the  pocket-book  back  by  a 
confederate,  by  an  accomplice. 

He  tried  to  protest.  Every  one  at  the  table  began  to 
laugh. 

He  could  not  eat  his  dinner,  and  went  away  amid  their 
ridicule. 

He  went  home,  ashamed  and  indigiiant,  choking  with 
rage,  overcome  with  confusion,  all  the  more  iii  despair  that 
he  was  capable,  with  his  Norman  artfulness,  of  doing  that 
of  which  they  accused  him,  and  even  of  pluming  himself  on 


A   PIECE  OF  STRING.  299 

it  as  a  good  trick.  His  innocence  dimly  seemed  to  him 
impossible  to  prove,  his  trickiness  being  so  well  known,  and 
he  felt  struck  to  the  heart  by  the  injustice  of  the  suspicion. 

Then  he  began  again  to  tell  of  his  adventure,  adding 
new  arguments  each  time,  more  energetic  protests,  and  more 
solemn  oaths  which  he  thought  out  in  his  hours  of  solitude, 
his  mind  being  occupied  with  the  story  of  the  string. 
People  believed  him  the  less,  the  more  subtle  and  compli- 
cated his  argument  became. 

^•'  Ha !  liar's  proofs  those  ! ''  they  said  behind  his  back. 

He  felt  it ;  it  gnawed  at  his  vitals ;  he  wore  himself  out 
with  useless  efforts. 

The  jokers  now  made  him  tell  "  The  Story  of  the  String  " 
for  their  amusement,  as  a  soldier  who  has  been  on  a  cam- 
paign is  made  to  tell  of  the  battle. 

His  mind,  deeply  affected,  grew  weak. 

Toward  the  end  of  December  he  took  to  his  bed. 

He  died  early  in  January,  and  in  the  delirium  of  his 
death  agony  he  protested  his  innocence,  repeating :  — 

"  A  li'P  string,  a  li'l'  string, —  see,  here  it  is,  your  honor.'* 

With  the  help  of  the  following  questions  study  the  structure  of 
the  story  you  have  just  read. 

Is  the  obstacle  external  or  internal?  What  is  the  real  obstacle? 
In  what  passages  are  you  made  aware  of  it  ?  Point  out  the  pas- 
sage in  which  we  are  told  that  the  peasant  himself  recognizes  the 
true  nature  of  the  obstacle. 

What  paragraphs  are  devoted  to  the  setting  or  the  environment  ? 
Does  the  description  of  the  people  also  characterize  them?  Do 
their  characteristics  make  the  tragic  outcome  any  more  plausible  ? 

Where  is  the  chief  character  introduced  ?  What  is  his  first  act  ? 
In  itself  the  act  is  harmless;  but  is  it  in  character?  Notice  care- 
fully every  detail  in  the  fifth  paragraph.  What  motives  are  estab- 
lished? At  this  point,  what  is  your  estimate  of  Hauchecorne's 
character  as  hinted  by  his  actions?     Where  are  your  sympathies? 

The  "  middle  "  now  begins.     What  is  the  purpose  of  the  town- 


300       .  NARRATION. 

crier  incident  —  in  the  matter  of  movement?  Why  must  there  be 
noise  and  publicity?  Consider  the  movement  of  the  succeeding 
incidents,  —  the  arrest,  the  examination  by  the  magistrate,  the 
defence.  What  does  the  elaborate  argument  of  the  accused  really 
indicate  ?  .  What  does  his  continual  talk  about  it  indicate  ?  Where 
is  the  centre  of  interest  or  turning  point  ?  You  can  tell  it  by  ask- 
ing at  what  precise  point  you  are  sure  that  a  tragic  and  not  a  comic 
end  is  inevitable. 

Where  does  the  solution,  the  denouement,  the  end,  begin  ?  Are 
his  mental  unbalancing  and  his  death  the  crisis?  The  climax? 
If  not,  where  are  these? 

State  the  point  of  the  story,  the  meaning,  the  significance.  Is  it 
anywhere  expressed  or  hinted?  Examine  the  bits  of  dialogue. 
What,  in  character  or  in  action,  is  hinted  by  each  bit?  Are  the 
motives  and  the  acts  in  harmony  everywhere  ?  Illustrate.  Where 
does  suspense  begin?     How  far  does  it  continue? 


CHAPTER   IX. 
EXPOSITION. 

The  Nature  of  Exposition. 

98.  We  may  begin  our  study  of  this  type  of  dis- 
course, known  also  as  explanation,  by  examining  a  good 
specimen  of  it  :  — 

The  word  "exact"  has  a  practical  and  a  theoretical 
meaning.  When  a  grocer  weighs  you  out  a  certain  quantity 
of  sugar  very  carefully,  and  says  it  is  exactly  a  pound,  he 
means  that  the  difference  between  the  mass  of  the  sugar 
and  that  of  the  pound  weight  he  employs  is  too  small  to  be 
detected  by  his  scales.  If  a  chemist  had  made  a  special 
investigation,  wishing  to  be  as  accurate  as  he  could,  and 
told  you  this  was  exactly  a  pound  of  sugar,  he  would  mean 
that  the  mass  of  the  sugar  differed  from  that  of  a  certain 
standard  piece  of  platinum  by  a  quantity  too  small  to  be 
detected  by  his  means  of  weighing,  which  are  a  thousand- 
fold more  accurate  than  the  grocer's.  But  what  would  a 
mathematician  mean,  if  he  made  the  same  statement  ?  He 
would  mean  this.  Suppose  the  mass  of  the  standard  pound 
to  be  represented  by  a  length,  say  a  foot,  measured  on  a 
certain  line ;  so  that  half  a  pound  would  be  represented  by 
six  inches,  and  so  on.  And  let  the  difference  between  the 
mass  of  the  sugar  and  that  of  the  standard  pound  be  drawn 
upon  the  same  line  to  the  same  scale.  Then,  if  that  differ- 
ence were  magnified  an  infinite  number  of  times,  it  would 
still  be  invisible.  This  is  the  theoretical  meaning  of  exact- 
ness. —  W.  K.  Clifford. 

301 


302  EXPOSITION. 

One  who  reads  this  selection  carefully  will  notice  in 
it  the  following  characteristic  features:  — 

(1)  The  -writer  seems  to  take  it  for  granted  that  he 
understands  the  subject  under  discussion  better  than  his 
readers  do,  and  hence  that  he  is  prepared  to  enlighten 
them  upon  it.  He  does  not  say  this  anywhere;  per- 
haps we  should  not  like  him  to  say  it ;  but  his  way  of 
putting  things  seems  (without  offence)  to  imply  it. 

(2)  His  chief  concern  appears  to  be  that  those  for 
whom  he  writes  shall  understand  precisely  what  the  sub- 
ject means.  One  can  imagine  him  saying  to  the  reader, 
"  Now  I  want  this  idea  to  be  just  as  clear  to  you  as  it 
is  to  me.  This  is  the  way  in  which  I  myself  look  at  it. 
See  if  you  can't  look  at  it  in  the  same  way.  If  you  do, 
I  am  sure  you  cannot  fail  to  understand  it." 

(3)  The  subject  in  w^hich  the  w^riter  is  interested  is  a 
general  idea,  not  a  particular  thing.  He  speaks  indeed 
of  particular  things,  as  the  weight,  the  scales,  and  the 
pound  of  su'gar  ;  but  it  is  evident  that  he  is  using  them 
only  as  illustrations.  His  main  interest  is  not  in  these 
objects,  but  in  what  they  mean  —  in  the  law  or  principle 
that  they  exemplify.  Other  objects,  provided  that 
they  brought  out  clearly  the  same  meaning  of  the 
general  idea  "  theoretical  exactness,"  would  answer  his 
purpose  quite  as  well. 

This  specimen  is  a  typical  example  of  exposition,  the 
kind  of  discourse  in  w^hich  the  w^riter's  aim  is  to  make 
others  see  the  meaning  of  some  idea  as  clearly  as  he  him- 
self sees  it.  Its  subject-matter  is  general  ideas,  laws,  or 
principles,  not  (as  in  description  and  narration)  particular 
things.     Its  indispensable  quality  is  clearness.     No  one. 


^THE  NATURE  OF  EXPOSITION.  303 

of  course,  should  attempt  to  write  an  explanation  of 
any  subject  unless  his  ideas  upon  it  are  entirely  clear. 
What  a  writer  does  not  himself  understand  he  is  not 
likely  to  make  intelligible  to  others. 

99.  Assignments  on  the  Nature  of  Exposition. 

A.  Select  from  the  list  below  the  subject  that  you  know  the 
most  about,  and  come  to  the  class  prepared  to  speak  on  it.  First 
the  thing  is  to  be  described  very  briefly ;  next  its  principle  or  law 
is  to  be  explained  as  fully  as  necessary  for  clearness. 

1.  Describe  a  lump  of  coal ;  then  explain  how  it  came  to  be 
what  it  is. 

2.  Describe  yeast ;  then  explain  the  principle  of  its  action. 

3.  Describe  baking-powder ;  then  explain  how  it  acts  and  why. 

4.  Describe  a  pulley ;  then  explain  the  principle  of  its  opera- 
tion. 

5.  Describe  a  freshet ;  then  explain  the  causes  of  freshets. 

6.  Describe  voting ;  then  explain  the  meaning  and  significance 
of  voting. 

7.  Describe  a  strike ;  then  explain  what  strikes  signify. 

8.  Describe  a  mission  Sunday  School ;  then  explain  its  signifi- 
cance. 

9.  Describe  a  Boy  Scout ;  then  explain  the  Boy  Scout  Move- 
ment. 

10.  Describe  a  department  store ;  then  explain  the  principle  of 
its  organization. 

B.  What  idea  is  made  clearer  by  each  of  the  following  para- 
graphs ? 

1.  One  of  the  best  equipped  observers  of  American  life, 
and  one  of  the  shrewdest,  also, — Professor  Giddings, — faces 
the  future  fearlessly.  He  holds  that  in  the  coming  years  a 
mixture  of  elements  not  Anglo-Teuton  "will  soften  the 
emotional   nature"  and  "quicken   the   poetic  and   artistic 


304  EXPOSITION, 

nature  "  of  the  American  people ;  it  will  make  us  "  gentler  in 
our  thoughts  and  feelings  because  of  the  Alpine  strain ''  (and 
this  includes  the  Slav).  We  shall  find  ourselves  "  with  a 
higher  power  to  enjoy  the  beautiful  things  of  life  because 
of  the  Celtic  and  the  Latin  blood."  And  as  if  this  prophecy 
of  emotional  benefit  was  not  heartening  enough,  Professor 
Giddings  holds  up  to  us  the  high  hope  of  an  intellectual 
benefit,  probably  through  the  commingling  of  bloods.  "  We 
shall  become  more  clearly  and  more  fearlessly  rational,  — 
in  a  word  more  scientific." 

—  Brander  Matthews,  The  American  of  the  Future,  in 
Century,  74 :  474. 

2.  In  mechanics  it  is  part  of  the  engineer's  profession  to 
consider  carefully  the  amount  of  physical  weight  and  pres- 
sure which  various  substances  will  bear  —  how  many 
pounds  a  given  girder  will  sustain ;  how  much  an  upright. 
It  is  upon  this  science  and  its  carefully  figured  mathematical 
details  that  the  safety  and  well-being  of  the  housed  com- 
munity so  largely  depend.  Sometimes,  to  be  sure,  even  the 
most  carefully  estimated  plans  are  spoiled  by  some  unfore- 
seen and  unforeseeable  weakness  in  the  structural  material, 
and  it  gives  way  at  a  pressure  or  strain  apparently  none  too 
great  for  its  endurance.  But  these  occasional  obsessions  of 
inanimate  nature  do  not  discourage  the  engineer,  or  make 
him  abandon  his  interminable  mathematics.  In  spite  of 
them,  or  on  account  of  them,  he  continues  his  studies  so 
that  he  may  better  succeed  in  placing  on  the  materials 
which  he  uses  no  grievous  burden  and  may  not  subject 
them  to  a  stress  or  strain  forbidden  by  natural  law.  Col- 
lapses of  buildings  are  less  frequent,  and  community  life 
becomes  safer  as  this  expert  knowledge,  founded  on  study 
and  experience,  grows  broader  and  surer. 

— ■  Alger,  Moral  Overstrain,  in  Atlantic,  93  :  496. 


NEED   OF  EXPOSITION.  305 

3.  Who  would  ever  think,  to  look  at  a  dull  fragment  of 
steel,  that  such  a  piece  of  metal  had  an  internal  history ! 
But  if  the  same  inert,  apparently  insensible,  piece  of  metal 
be  polished  and  suitably  prepared  for  examination  under 
the  microscope,  its  internal  organism  is  more  clearly  and 
surely  shown  than  the  interior  skeleton  of  a  man  when 
pierced  by  the  X-ray. 
—  BoYNTON :  Anatomy  of  the  Steel  Bail,  Harper^ s,  112 :  585. 


Need  of  Exposition. 

100.  When  we  consider  how  vague  and  confused  are 
the  ideas  of  the  majority  of  persons  upon  the  important 
questions  of  life,  such  as  questions  of  politics,  economics, 
morals,  and  art,  and  also  how  necessary  it  is  for  the 
conduct  of  the  world's  business  that  their  ideas  upon 
these  subjects  should  be  clear,  we  can  easily  understand 
why  there  has  sprung  up  a  distinct  class  of  writing 
which  has  for  its  object  the  explanation  of  things  hard 
to  understand.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  any  other 
kind  of  discourse  is  so  directly  useful  as  this  kind. 
Without  it  we  might  know  and  communicate  to  others 
the  particulars  of  our  experience  ;  but  the  meaning  of 
these  particulars,  the  general  principles  that  underlie 
them,  could  not  be"  definitely  set  forth.  It  is  chiefly  by 
means  of  exposition  that  the  teacher  instructs  his  class, 
the  scientist  proclaims  his  discoveries,  the  inventor 
makes  known  his  inventions.  That  one  age  is  able  to 
surpass  the  foregoing  in  knowledge  is  due,  in  large  part, 
to  the  fact  that  by  means  of  exposition  we  pass  on  the 
results  of  study  and  investigation  from  one  generation 
to  the  next. 


306  EXPOSITION, 

It  is  not  only  in  these  great  matters  that  exposition 
is  necessary.  It  is  equally  true  in  the  small  matters  of 
daily  life  and  experience  that  a  clear  understanding  of 
what  is  appropriate,  and  why  it  is  appropriate,  and  how 
it  is  to  be  done,  avoids  thousands  of  blunders,  embarrass- 
ments, and  petty  annoyances.  The  ability  to  explain 
the  principle  involved  in  the  smaller  conventionalities 
of  life,  and  in  the  common  operations  that  go  on  in 
business  and  in  every  household,  is  a  daily  necessity 
for  somebody. 

101.    Assignments  on  the  Need  of  Exposition. 

A.  Explain  orally  to  the  class  that  one  of  the  following  about 
which  you  are  best  informed  :  — 

1.  How  to  turn  off  the  water  in  case  the  house  is  in  danger  of 
being  flooded. 

2.  What  use  should  be  made  of  the  kitchen  sink  and  what  use 
should  not  be  made  of  it. 

3.  How  to  read  a  water-meter  or  a  gas-meter. 

4.  How  to  regulate  a  hot-air  furnace. 

5.  What  to  do  in  case  of  a  severe  burn,  and  the  reason. 

6.  How  to  tell  an  oak  tree  from  an  elm. 

7.  What  to  do  and  what  not  to  do  in  making  a  camp-fire  — 
with  reasons. 

8.  How  to  proceed  in  trying  to  sell  a  magazine  subscription. 

9.  How  to  organize  a  literary  club,  with  reasons  for  your  rec- 
ommendations. 

10.  How  to  breathe,  how  to  swim,  how  to  sit  properly,  how  to 
stand  properly. 

11.  How  to  get  a  history  lesson. 

12.  How  to  write  a  news  item. 

13.  How  to  decorate  a  library. 


NEED   OF  EXPOSITION,  307 

B.  Name  some  common  thing  that  you  have  always  wanted  to 
have  explained  to  you.  (By  so  doing  you  may  get  an  explanation 
from  a  classmate  in  the  next  set  of  themes.) 

C.  Name  some  social  custom  or  conventionality  that  seems 
absurd  to  you,  and  ask  for  an  explanation. 

D.  Name  some  great  topic  in  history,  in  science,  in  morals,  or 
in  government,  that  you  do  not  understand. 

E.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  writer  of  each  of  the  following 
selections  ?  Just  what  is  it  that  he  wishes  us  to  understand  and 
appreciate  ?     Does  he  make  himself  clear  to  you  at  every  point? 

1.  There  should  be  some  myth  (but  if  there  is,  I  know  it 
not)  founded  on  the  shivering  of  the  reeds.  There  are  not 
many  things  in  nature  more  striking  to  man's  eye.  It  is 
such  an  eloquent  pantomime  of  terror;  and  to  see  such  a 
number  of  terrified  creatures  taking  sanctuary  in  every 
nook  along  the  shore  is  enough  to  infect  a  silly  human  with 
alarm.  Perhaps  they  are  only  acold,  and  no  wonder,  stand- 
ing waist  deep  in  the  stream.  Or,  perhaps,  they  have  never 
got  accustomed  to  the  speed  and  fury  of  the  river's  flux,  or 
the  miracle  of  its  continuous  body.  Pan  once  played  upon 
their  forefathers ;  and  so,  by  the  hands  of  his  river,  he  still 
plays  upon  these  later  generations  down  all  the  valley  of  the 
Oise :  and  plays  the  same  air,  both  sweet  and  shrill,  to  tell 
us  of  the  beauty  and  the  terror  of  the  world. 

—  Stevenson  :   TJie  Oise  in  Flood. 

2.  Whence  comes  that  bashfulness  which  men  of  great 
ability  so  often  feel  in  addressing  a  large  assembly  ?  How 
happens  it  that  a  man  who  never  hesitates  or  stammers  in 
pouring  out  his  thoughts  to  a  friend,  is  embarrassed  or  struck 
dumb  if  he  attempts  to  say  the  same  things,  however  suitable, 
to  fifty  persons  ?  Whately  finds  a  solution  of  the  problem 
in  the  curious  and  complex  play  of  sympathies  which  takes 


308  EXPOSITION. 

place  in  a  large  assembly,  and  which  increases  in  proportion 
to  its  numbers.  In  addressing  a  large  assembly,  a  person 
knows  that  each  hearer  sympathizes  both  with  his  own 
anxiety  to  acquit  himself  well,  and  also  with  the  same  feel- 
ings in  the  minds  of  the  rest.  He  knows  that  every  slip  or 
blunder  he  may  make,  tending  to  excite  mirth,  pity,  or  con- 
tempt, will  make  a  stronger  impression  on  each  of  the  hear- 
ers from  their  mutual  sympathy  and  their  consciousness  of 
it,  —  and  this  doubles  his  anxiety.  Again,  he  knows  that 
each  hearer,  putting  himself  mentally  in  the  speaker's  place, 
sympathizes  with  this  increased  anxiety,  which  is,  by  this 
thought,  increased  still  more;  and  finally,  if  he  becomes  at 
all  embarrassed,  the  knowledge  that  there  are  so  many  to 
sympathize,  not  only  with  that  embarrassment,  but  also  with 
each  other's  feelings  on  the  perception  of  it,  heightens  the 
speaker's  confusion  to  the  extreme,  and  makes  him,  perhaps, 
speechless.  —  Mathews  :   The  Great  Conversers,  249. 

3.  The  learned  gentleman  has  risen  in  righteous  indigna- 
tion to  denounce  the  restriction  of  production  by  trade? 
unions.  The  gentleman  probably  never  heard  of  a  "  racer  " 
or  "  pacemaker."  He  has  never  seen  old  men,  men  weak 
from  sickness  or  hunger,  compelled  to  keep  pace  with  a 
highly  trained  athletic  workman,  who  had,  in  turn,  been 
bribed  to  exert  himself  to  the  utmost.  He  has  not  seen  these 
things  take  place  where  such  feverish  haste  means  imminent 
danger  of  deadly  crippling  accidents.  If  he  had,  he  might 
possibly  consider  the  union  regulation  limiting  output  as  a 
simple  law  against  murder.  He  never  worked  in  the  steel 
mills  or  in  the  packing  houses,  where  monstrous  and  com- 
plicated mechanism  compels  the  human  cog  who  fits  into 
this  mechanical  monster  to  move  with  it  or  be  crushed  — 
crushed  either  literally  in  the  iron  and  steel  machines  or 
thrown  out  of  work  to  be  crushed  by  the  equally  pitiless 


NEED   OF  EXPOSITION.  309 

and  deadly  social  machine.  He  has  not  seen  these  "  mechani- 
cal bosses  "  speeded  just  a  trifle  faster  each  month  and  year 
until  only  the  youngest  and  strongest  can  stand  the  pace. 
This  means  that  when  the  youth  of  the  race  is  ground  into 
profits,  the  manhood  and  old  age  are  thrown  out  to  die. 

4.  '^The  average  judgment"  —  what  sway  it  bears  over 
us !  Deference  to  the  views  of  others  is  the  principle  of 
our  institutions  and  actions.  Each  man  wishes  to  be  a 
"good  fellow";  that  is,  so  to  act  as  to  meet  the  approval 
of  the  greatest  number  of  other  "fellows."  He  averages 
himself  with  the  rest  by  everlastingly  exchanging  ideas  and 
articles,  of  the  appreciable  sort,  with  his  fellow  beings. 
Small  wonder  that  the  wholesalers  of  our  food,  clothing, 
medicines,  and  musical  machines  know  that  their  products 
will  sweep  the  land.  An  article  once  favored  must  run 
its  course,  like  a  fad.  We  buy  it  because  others  do;  we 
deceive  ourselves  into  approval  of  it  in  imitation  of  a  like 
self-deception  on  the  part  of  our  acquaintances.  Yet  we 
call  ourselves  the  most  individual  people  on  earth !  As  a 
whole  we  have  lost  the  inclination  and  capacity  of  separate 
selfhood. 

—  Knox  :   Our  Lost  Individuality,  Atlantic,  104  :  818. 

5.  Nearly  every  one  knows  that  for  rustic  cottages  an 
excellent  effect  for  outdoor  planting  can  be  had  by  using 
clumps  of  the  gigantic  fern  or  brake  which  grows  in  wild 
and  swampy  places,  but  it  is  not  as  well  known  that  the 
great  tufts  of  swamp  grasses  which  one  finds  along  the  same 
places  are  as  decorative  as  the  flowering  pampas  grass.  It 
is  a  great  gain  to  learn  the  beauty  of  common  things,  and  it 
is  surprising  how  soon  it  is  recognized  by  every  one  when 
they  are  lifted  from  the  roadside  or  pasture  into  a  place  of 
honor  beside  the  dwelling-house.  —  Wheeler  :  TJie  Decoror 
tive  Use  of  Wild  Flowers,  Atlantic,  95 :  634. 


310  EXPOSITION. 

Common  Methods  of  Exposition. 

102.  The  common  methods  of  exposition  have  been 
fully  explained  and  illustrated  on  pages  64  to  105  of 
this  book.     They  are  : — 

(1)  Repetition  of  the  idea  in  other  forms. 

(2)  Comparison  or  contrasts. 

(3)  Particulars  and  details. 

(4)  Specific  instances. 

(5)  Causes  and  effects. 

These  will  be  referred  to  in  the  present  chapter  only 
as  they  may  be  needed  in  connection  with  the  larger 
problems  of  exposition  to  be  treated  in  the  following 
pages. 

Why  we  Pail  to  Understand. 

103.  The  principal  reason  why  people  fail  to  under- 
stand the  subjects  with  which  they  have  to  do  in  the 
ordinary  business  of  life,  is  not  that  they  lack  ideas 
about  them,  but  that  the  ideas  they  have  are  in  a  state 
of  disorder  or  confusion.  This  is  indicated  by  the  well- 
known  comment  on  any  difficult  subject,  that  we  "  can't 
make  head  or  tail  of  it,"  meaning  that  our  ideas  about 
it  have  no  system  or  unity.  Again,  we  sometimes  say 
that  we  are  "  all  mixed  up  "  or  that  our  minds  are  "  in 
a  whirl,"  meaning  that  we  cannot  reduce  our  thoughts 
to  order  and  regularity.  It  will  be  a  help  to  us  in  our 
study  of  exposition  to  see  how  this  disorder  arises  and 
to  consider  how  it  may  be  overcome. 

There  are  three  principal  causes  of  confusion  in  peo- 
ple's ideas  about  any  subject :  — 


FAILING    TO    UNDERSTAND.  311 

1.  The  subject  may  be  so  strange  and  novel  that  they  are 
unable  to  connect  it  in  an  orderly  way  with  any  of  the  ideas 
already  in  their  minds. 

2.  The  subject  may  appear  to  contain  ideas  that  are  incon- 
sistent and  contradictory. 

3.  The  subject  may  be  too  large  or  too  complex  for  the  mind 
to  grasp  all  at  once. 

These  causes  will  be  examined  in  turn. 


104.    Assignments  on  Failing  to  Understand. 

A.  The  following  selection  has  been  found  difficult  to  under- 
stand by  many  second-year  high  school  pupils.  Has  the  writer  of 
it  begun  with  an  easy  statement  or  a  hard  one  ?  Is  the  first  sentence 
clear  to  you?  Would  he  have  done  better  to  begin  :  "  What  is  a 
day?  When  does  a  day  begin  ?  And  when  does  it  end?  '*  Point 
out  all  of  the  places  that  are  dark  to  you.  Do  you  think  the  trouble 
is  with  the  strangeness  of  the  subject  ?  Are  any  ideas  inconsist- 
ent?    Or  is  the  subject  in  itself  too  complex  for  you? 

It  seems  to  me  that  any  person  who  endeavors  to  obtain 
a  philosophical  idea  of  the  nature  of  our  mode  of  computing 
time  by  days,  must  see  the  impossibility  of  marking  any 
precise  limit  for  the  commencement  and  close  of  time. 
Nothing  is  so  indefinite,  if  we  take  an  enlarged  and  philo- 
sophical view  of  the  subject,  as  the  first  day.  Astronomers 
commence  it  at  twelve  o'clock  at  noon.  Some  nations  begin 
it  at  midnight.  On  shore  it  is  reckoned  as  commencing  at 
one  hour,  and  at  sea,  as  at  another.  The  day,  too,  begins  at 
a  different  time  in  every  different  place,  so  that  a  ship  at 
sea,  beginning  a  day  in  one  place  and  ending  it  in  another, 
sometimes  will  have  twenty-three  and  one-half  and  sometimes 
twenty-four  and  one-half  hours  in  her  day,  and  no  clock  or 
timepiece  whatever  can  keep  her  time.  An  officer  of  the 
ship  is  obliged  to  determine  the  beginning  of  the  day  every 


312  EXPOSITION. 

noon  by  astronomical  observation.  A  sea  captain  can  often 
make  a  difference  of  an  hour  in  the  length  of  his  day  by 
the  direction  in  which  he  steers  his  ship ;  because  a  day 
begins  and  ends  in  no  two  places,  east  and  west  of  each 
other,  at  the  same  time.  At  Jerusalem  they  are  six  hours 
in  advance  of  us  in  their  time,  and  at  the  Sandwich  Islands 
six  hours  behind.  In  consequence  of  this,  it  is  evident  that 
the  ship,  changing  her  longitude,  must  every  day  change 
her  reckoning.  These  sources  of  difficulty  in  marking  out 
the  limits  of  a  day,  increase  as  we  go  toward  the  pole.  A 
ship,  within  fifty  miles  of  it,  might  sail  round  on  a  parallel 
of  latitude,  and  keep  it  one  continual  noon  or  midnight  to 
her  all  the  year ;  only  noon  and  midnight  would  be  there 
almost  the  same.  At  the  pole  itself  all  distinction  between 
day  and  night  entirely  and  utterly  ceases;  summer  and 
winter  are  the  only  change.  Habitable  regions  do  not 
indeed  extend  to  the  pole,  but  they  extend  far  beyond  any 
practical  distinction  between  noon  and  midnight,  or  even- 
ing and  morning. 

The  difference  between  the  times  of  commencing  and  of 
ending  days  in  different  parts  of  the  earth  is  so  great,  that 
a  ship,  sailing  around  the  globe,  loses  a  whole  day  in  her 
reckoning,  or  gains  a  whole  day,  according  to  the  direction 
in  which  she  sails.  If  she  sets  out  from  Boston,  and  passes 
round  Cape  Horn,  and  across  the  Pacific  Ocean,  to  China, 
thence  through  the  Indian  and  Atlantic  oceans  home,  she 
will  find,  on  her  arrival,  that  it  is  Tuesday  with  her  crew, 
when  it  is  Wednesday  on  shore.  Each  of  her  days  will  have 
been  a  little  longer  than  a  day  is  in  any  fixed  place,  and  of 
course  she  will  have  had  fewer  of  them.  So  that  if  the 
passengers  are  Christians,  and  have  endeavored  to  keep  the 
Sabbath,  they  will  not  and  cannot  have  corresponded  with 
any  Christian  nation  whatever  in  the  times  of  their  observ- 
ance of  it.  — J.  Abbott. 


FAILING   TO    UNDERSTAND.  313 

B.  Name  a  rather  difficult  thing  that  you  have  mastered  and 
feel  prepared  to  explain  to  some  one.  Write  the  explanation  of  it. 
The  following  may  suggest  one  of  your  own  accomplishments :  — 

1.  How  a  skater  learns  to  cut  a  figure  8  in  the  ice. 

2.  How  an   aeroplane  is   maintained  in  the    air  when   it   is 
heavier  than  the  air. 

3.  How  a  bill  in  the  legislature  becomes  a  law. 

4.  How  to  train  a  dog  to  sit  up  and  beg  for  food. 

5.  How  to  tread  water,  or  to  swim  on  your  back,  or  to  run  an 
automobile. 

6.  How  to  distinguish  the  "  absolute  construction  "  in  English 
from  the  "  hanging  participle." 

7.  How  to  open  a  savings  account  at  a  bank. 

8.  How  to  write  a  promissory  note. 

9.  How  to  make  a  telephone  system. 

10.  How  to  make  a  willow  whistle. 

11.  The  best  card  trick. 

12.  How  hay  is  cured,  or  butter  is  made,  or  a  sponge-cake,  or 
a  Welsh  rarebit. 

C.  Do  you  have  any  difficulty  in  understanding  parts  of  the 
following?     If  so,  mark  them  and  bring  them  up  in  class. 

Almost  the  only  noxious  animal  of  Samoa  is  the  mosquito, 
but  this  is  truly  a  fearful  pest ;  not  simply  as  a  buzzing  and 
stinging  torment,  but  as  the  intermediate  host  and  dissemi- 
nator of  the  dreadful  scourge  elephantiasis.  This  is  a  form 
of  iilariasis  in  which  the  minute  parasitic  filarise  lodge  in  the 
lymphatic  glands,  and  produce  a  remarkable  hypertrophy 
of  the  subcutaneous  tissue,  so  that  a  man's  leg  may  come  to 
weigh  as  much  as  all  the  rest  of  his  body,  or  his  arm  be 
simply  a  great  useless  cylindrical  mass  a  foot  in  diameter. 
The  specific  cause  of  the  disease  is  the  parasitic  blood-worm 
Filaria  sanguinis  hominls,  which  passes  part  of  its  life  m 


314  EXPOSITION. 

the  body,  particularly  the  thoracic  muscles,  of  the  mosquito. 
The  exact  mode  of  migration  of  the  parasite  from  the 
mosquito  to  the  man  is  yet  undetermined ;  whether  by  the 
bite,  that  is,  the  piercing  of  the  skin  with  the  oral  proboscis, 
or  whether  it  occurs  by  the  drinking  of  water  in  which  the 
dead  bodies  of  the  infested  mosquitoes  have  disintegrated, 
is  still  undetermined.  The  filarise  have  been  observed  to 
migrate  from  the  thorax  of  the  mosquito  into  its  labium  (the 
fleshy  sheath  of  the  proboscis),  and  even  to  escape  from  the 
tip  of  the  labium.  This  points  strongly  to  the  possibility 
of  infection  at  the  time  of  piercing,  but  the  parasites  are 
large,  and  few  could  enter  the  blood  at  one  time.  The  dis- 
ease has  obtained  an  amazing  prevalency  among  the  natives, 
almost  certainly  one-third  or  more  —  Manson  estimates  it 
at  one-half  —  being  afflicted.  It  is  incurable,  at  least  in  all 
cases  of  a  certain  length  of  standing,  and  even  from  the  first 
if  the  patient  remains  in  the  tropics.  It  causes  the  patient 
little  pain,  being  attended,  however,  at  certain  recurring 
intervals  by  fever,  but  in  its  advanced  stages  so  deforms 
the  body  as  to  make  the  sufferer  incapable  of  walking  or 
of  almost  any  other  motion.  White  men  are  occasionally 
attacked ;  one  white  patient  was  seen  near  Pago-Pago  during 
our  stay.  If  the  disease  once  seated  is  incurable,  remedial 
measures  must  be  in  the  nature  of  a  campaign  against  the  in- 
termediary mosquito,  the  most  abundant  species  of  which  is, 
interestingly  enough,  the  same  species,  Stegomyia  fasciata, 
so  abundant  in  Cuba,  and  by  the  researches  of  American  sur- 
geons and  physicians  now  practically  convicted  of  breeding 
and  disseminating  the  (still  unknown)  parasite  of  yellow 
fever. 

So  far  as  the  Samoan  people  are  concerned  the  most  valu- 
able possible  result  of  American  rule  would  be  the  stamp- 
ing out  of  the  mosquito  in  Tutuila,  and  steps  in  this 
direction  have  already  been  taken.  —  Atlantic,  94 :  632. 


CONNECTING  NEW  IDEAS    WITH  OLD.  315 

Connecting  New  Ideas  with  Old. 

105.  When  the  cause  of  the  difficulty  is  the  strange- 
ness or  disconnectedness  of  the  subject,  the  aim  of  the 
expositor  is  to  discover  some  connection,  now  hidden 
from  us,  between  the  new  idea  and  ideas  that  are  old 
and  familiar.  He  tries  to  place  the  new  thought  in  a 
system  of  ideas  which  we  already  understand.  This 
method  of  explanation  is  well  illustrated  in  the  selec- 
tion below.  The  subject  which  the  author  wishes  to 
explain,  the  fourth  dimension,  is  to  most  of  us  wholly 
strange  and  mysterious.  It  has  no  place,  apparently, 
in  the  order  of  ideas  with  which  we  are  familiar.  Hence 
our  notions  about  it  are  extremely  vague  and  confused. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  are  all  perfectly  familiar  with 
the  ordinary  geometrical  conceptions  of  parallel  lines, 
spheres,  and  plane  surfaces  ;  and  if  the  fourth  dimension 
can  somehow  be  connected  naturally  with  these  familiar 
and  systematized  conceptions,  it  is  very  likely  to  be 
understood.  The  connection  is  made  by  the  writer  as 
follows  :  — 

Suppose  a  world  consisting  of  a  boundless  flat  plane  to 
be  inhabited  by  reasoning  beings  who  can  move  about  at 
pleasure  on  the  plane,  but  are  not  able  to  turn  their  heads 
up  or  down,  or  even  to  see  or  think  of  such  terms  as  above 
them  and  below  them,  and  things  around  them  can  be  pushed 
or  pulled  about  in  any  direction,  but  cannot  be  lifted  from 
the  plane.  People  and  things  can  pass  around  each  other, 
but  cannot  step  over  anything.  These  dwellers  in  "flat- 
land"  could  construct  a  plane  geometry  which  would  be 
exactly  like  ours  in  being  based  on  the  axioms  of  Euclid. 
Two  parallel  straight  lines  would  never  meet,  though  con- 
tinued indefinitely. 


316  EXPOSITION, 

But  suppose  that  the  surface  on  which  these  beings  live, 
instead  of  being  an  infinitely  extended  plane,  is  really  the 
surface  of  an  immense  globe,  like  the  earth  on  which  we 
live.  It  needs  no  knowledge  of  geometry,  but  only  an  ex- 
amination of  any  globular  object  —  an  apple,  for  example 
—  to  show  that  if  we  draw  a  line  as  straight  as  possible  on 
a  sphere,  and  parallel  to  it  draw  a  small  piece  of  a  second 
line,  and  continue  this  in  as  straight  a  line  as  we  can,  the 
two  lines  will  meet  when  we  proceed  in  either  direction  one- 
quarter  of  the  way  around  the  sphere.  For  our  "  flat-land  " 
people  these  lines  would  both  be  perfectly  straight,  because 
the  only  curvature  would  be  in  the  direction  downwards 
which  they  could  never  either  perceive  or  discover. 

To  explain  hypergeometry  proper  we  must  first  set  forth 
what  a  fourth  dimension  of  space  means,  and  show  how 
natural  the  way  by  which  it  may  be  approached.  We  con- 
tinue our  analogy  from  "  flat-land."  In  this  supposed  land 
let  us  make  a  cross  —  two  straight  lines  intersecting  at  right 
angles.  The  inhabitants  of  this  land  understand  the  cross 
perfectly  and  conceive  of  it  just  as  we  do.  But  let  us  ask 
them  to  draw  a  third  line,  intersecting  in  the  same  point, 
and  perpendicular  to  both  the  other  lines.  They  would  at 
once  pronounce  this  absurd  and  impossible.  It  is  equally 
absurd  and  impossible  to  us  if  we  require  the  third  line  to 
be  drawn  on  the  paper.  But  we  should  reply,  "  If  you  al- 
low us  to  leave  the  paper  or  flat  surface,  then  we  can  solve 
the  problem  by  simply  drawing  the  third  line  through  the 
paper  perpendicular  to  its  surface." 

Now,  to  pursue  the  analogy,  suppose  that,  after  we  have 
drawn  three  mutually  perpendicular  lines,  some  being  from 
another  sphere  proposes  to  us  the  drawing  of  a  fourth  line 
through  the  same  point,  perpendicular  to  all  three  of  the 
lines  already  there.  We  should  answer  him  in  the  same 
way  that  the  inhabitants  of  "  flat-land  "  answered  us :  "  The 


CONNECTING   NEW  IDEAS    WITH   OLD.  317 

problem  is  impossible.  You  cannot  draw  any  such  line  in 
space  as  we  understand  it."  If  our  visitor  conceived  of  the 
fouTth  dimension,  he  would  reply  to  us  as  we  replied  to  the 
^'flat-land"  people:  "The  problem  is  absurd  and  impossible 
if  you  confine  your  line  to  space  as  you  understand  it.  But 
for  me  there  is  a  fourth  dimension  in  space.  Draw  your 
line  through  that  dimension  and  the  problem  will  be  solved. 
This  is  perfectly  simple  to  me ;  it  is  impossible  to  you  solely 
because  your  conceptions  do  not  admit  of  more  than  three 
dimensions.'' 

Supposing  the  inhabitants  of  "  flat-land  "  to  be  intellectual 
beings  as  we  are,  it  would  be  interesting  to  them' to  be  told 
what  dwellers  of  space  in  three  dimensions  could  do.  Let 
US  pursue  the  analogy  by  showing  what  dwellers  in  four 
dimensions  might  do.  Place  a  dweller  of  "  flat-land  "  inside 
a  circle  drawn  on  his  plane,  and  ask  him  to  step  outside  of 
it  without  breaking  through  it.  He  would  go  all  around, 
and  finding  every  inch  of  it  closed,  he  would  say  it  was 
impossible  from  the  very  nature  of  the  conditions.  "  But,'' 
we  would  reply,  "  that  is  because  of  your  limited  conceptions. 
We  can  step  over  it." 

"  Step  over  it ! "  he  would  exclaim.  "  I  do  not  know 
what  that  means.  I  can  pass  around  anything  if  there  is 
a  way  ope«,  but  I  cannot  imagine  what  you  mean  by  step- 
ping over  it." 

But  we  should  simply  step  over  the  line  and  reappear  on 
the  other  side.  So,  if  we  confined  a  being  able  to  move  in  a 
fourth  dimension  in  the  walls  of  a  dungeon  of  which  the 
sides,  the  floor,  and  the  ceiling  were  all  impenetrable,  he 
would  step  outside  of  it  without  touching  any  part  of  the 
building,  just  as  easily  as  we  could  step  over  a  circle  drawn 
on  the  plane  without  touching  it.  To  do  this  he  would  only 
have  to  make  a  little  excursion  in  the  fourth  dimension. 

—  Harper's  Magazine,  104 :  249. 


318  EXPOSITION. 

106.  Assignments  on  Connecting  New  Ideas  with  Old. 

A.  Explain  to  a  pupil  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school  the 
meaning  of  one  of  the  following  terms.  Try  to  connect  the  strange 
idea  with  ideas  that  are  familiar  to  him.  Make  an  effort  to  put 
yourself  in  his  place,  for  in  this  way  you  can  more  readily  think 
of  the  things  he  knows  about  and  will  be  interested  in.  Beware  of 
using  terms  that  he  will  not  understand. 

(1)  Wireless  telegraphy.  (2)  A  trust.  (3)  Hypnotism.  (4)  The 
New  England  town-meeting.  (5)  Reciprocity.  (6)  The  canals 
of  Mars.  (7)  The  solar  spectrum.  (8)  The  referendum.  (9)  The 
shorter  catechism.  (10)  The  facial  angle.  (11)  Graft.  (12)  Mo- 
nopoly. (13)  Monoplane.  (14)  Political  Insurgency.  (15)  Em- 
bezzlement. (16)  Kleptomania.  (17)  Volt.  (18)  Ohm.  (19)  H.P. 
(20)  F.O.B. 

B.  A  boy  ten  years  old  wishes  to  know  why  it  is  that  a  spoon 
when  it  is  put  in  a  glass  of  water  looks  as  if  it  were  bent  or  broken. 
Explain  the  phenomenon  to  him  in  simple  terms. 

C.  Explain  to  a  younger  person  what  you  think  Emerson 
meant  when  he  said,  "  Good  manners  are  made  up  of  petty  sacri- 
fices."    Use  familiar  examples. 

D.  Suppose  that  a  laboring  man  who  has  had  but  little  educa- 
tion has  brought  to  you  the  following  lines  of  poetry  for  explana- 
tion. He  has  found  them  in  Shakespeare's  Julius  Ccesar,  which 
he  is  now,  with  interest  but  with  difficulty,  reading  for  the  first 
time.  What  will  you  say  to  him?  Remember  that  many  things 
with  which  you  are  well  acquainted  will  be  to  him  very  new  and 
strange. 

Between  the  acting  of  a  dreadful  thing 

And  the  first  motion,  all  the  interim  is 

Like  a  phantasma,  or  a  hideous  dream : 

The  genius  and  the  mortal  instruments 

Are  then  in  council ;  and  the  state  of  man, 

Like  to  a  little  kingdom,  suffers  then 

The  nature  of  an  insurrection.         —  Act  II,  Sc.  1. 


LOGICAL  DEFINITION.  319 

0  conspiracy, 
Sham'st  thou  to  show  thy  dangerous  brow  by  night, 
When  evils  are  most  free  ?     0,  then,  by  day 
Where  wilt  thou  find  a  cavern  dark  enough 
To  mask  thy  monstrous  visage  ?     Seek  none,  conspiracy ; 
Hide  it  in  smiles  and  affability ; 
For  if  thou  path,  thy  native  semblance  on, 
Not  Erebus  itself  were  dim  enough 
To  hide  thee  from  prevention.  —  Act  II,  So.  1. 

The  posture  of  your  blows  are  yet  unknown ; 

But  for  your  words,  they  rob  the  Hybla  bees, 

And  leave  them  honeyless.  —  Act  V,  Sc.  1. 

Logical  Definition. 
107.  Another  method  of  connecting  the  new  idea 
with  old  ideas  is  by  the  process  known  as  definition. 
To  define  an  idea  is  to  put  it  in  its  appropriate  place 
among  the  classes  of  things  -with  TTvhich  w^e  are  familiar. 
This  we  can  do  most  easily  by  the  following  method : 
(1)  we  mention  some  large  class  with  which  the  reader 
is  already  acquainted ;  then  (2)  by  naming  some 
prominent  characteristic  of  the  thing  to  be  defined,  we 
show  where,  in  that  large  class,  it  properly  belongs. 
Thus  if  our  purpose  is  to  define  the  idea  hypnotism.,  we 
may  begin  by  saying  that  it  is  a  kind  of  sleep  (sleep 
being  a  large  class  with  which  we  are  already  familiar), 
and  complete  the  definition  by  adding  that  it  is  induced 
by  motions  of  the  hand  or  other  suggestions  of  the 
operator  (this  being  the  essential  characteristic  which 
distinguishes  this  kind  from  other  kinds  of  sleep). 
Hypnotism  is  thus  placed  definitely  among  the  classes 
of  things  with  which  we  are  familiar. 


320 


EXPOSITION. 


The  large  class  is  termed  the  genus.  The  distinguishing 
characteristic  is  termed  the  differentia.  It  is  generally  best 
to  choose  as  small  a  genus  as  can  be  used  conveniently. 
To  define  a  gnat  as  an  animal  is  hardly  to  define  at  all; 
the  class  is  too  large.  It  is  better  to  classify  it  as  an 
insect,  and  still  better  as  a  fly.  So  in  defining  a  Pas- 
toral we  may  say  that  it  is  a  piece  of  literature  treat- 
ing of  rural  life.  Here  the  genus,  "piece  of  literature," 
is  a  very  large  class  including  both  prose  and  poetry. 
The  definition  will  be  more  accurate  as  well  as  more 
helpful  if  we  say  that  a  Pastoral  is  a  narrative  or  slightly 
narrative  poem.  And  it  will  be  still  further  improved 
if  we  add  the  differentia^  as  above,  treating  of  rural  life. 
The  following  is  a  convenient  method  of  displaying  and 
separating  the  parts  of  a  logical  definition :  — 


Term  to  be 
Defined. 


Genus  or  Class. 


Differentia  or  Distin- 
guishing Charac- 
teristic. 


Hypnotism  is  .  . 
A  pastoral  is  .  . 
A  gnat  is      .     •     • 

A  tariff  is     .     .     . 

Gerrymandering  is 


a  kind  of  sleep 

a  slightly  narrative 
poem 

a  very  small  fly     . 


a  tax 

Irecombining  the  po- ' 
litical  subdivisions 
of  a  state 


f  induced  by  motions  of 
the   hand    or    other 
[    suggestions. 

treating  of  rural  life. 

I  with  pairs  of  jointed 
appendages  sticking 
out  of  its  head, 
[levied on  certain  goods 
I  brought  into  a  conn- 
I    try. 

for  partisan  advantage. 


LOGICAL   DEFINITION.  321 

As  we  meet  definitions  in  our  text-books,  in  the  dic- 
tionaries, and  in  general  reading,  we  do  not  always  find 
the  parts  in  the  logical  order  shown  above.  Thus  if  we 
read,  "  Politics  treats  of  the  principles  governing  the 
conduct  of  state  affairs  ;  it  is  a  branch  of  civics,"  we  see 
that  here  the  differentia  comes  before  the  genus^  and  that 
the  normal  order  would  be,  "  Politics  is  |  that  branch  of 
civics,  I  which  treats  of  the  principles  governing  the 
conduct  of  state  affairs." 

Often,  too,  a  definition  is  incomplete.  The  genus  may 
be  missing  as  in  this,  "  A  pastoral  treats  of  rural  life ; " 
or  the  differentia  may  be  missing  as  in  this,  "  A  monitor 
is  a  sort  of  battleship."  Sometimes,  for  a  given  pur- 
X)ose,  an  incomplete  definition  like  those  just  quoted  will 
serve  well  enough ;  but  especially  in  the  class  room,  in- 
complete definition  is  a  widespread  fault  which  every 
student  should  try  to  overcome  in  his  own  practice. 

A  synonym  is  useful  in  definition  when  it  is  a  more 
familiar  word  than  the  word  to  be  defined.  Often,  how- 
ever, even  in  dictionaries,  a  synonym  that  is  even  less 
familiar  than  the  word  it  purports  to  explain  will  be 
given.  A  person  who  doesn't  know  what  a  "tariff"  is 
will  probably  not  be  enlightened  if  told  that  it  is  an 
"  impost  "  or  a  "  duty."  If  I  do  not  know  what  "  bun- 
combe "  means,  I  probably  do  not  know  what  "  flap- 
doodle "  means,  either. 

A  definition  should  not  employ  in  the  genus  or  differentia 
any  part  or  derivative  of  the  w^ord  to  be  defined.  It  is  of 
no  value  to  be  told  that  "  an  inheritance  is  that  which 
is  inherited,"  or  that  "  gerrymandering  is  the  process  of 
applying  the  gerrymander." 

In  all  sorts  of  exposition,  but  in  definition  especially,  it 


322  EXPOSITION, 

is  necessary  to  remember  the  audience,  to  think  of  the 
person  for  whom  you  are  defining,  to  consider  what  he 
probably  knows  and  what  he  probably  does  not  know, 
and  to  aim  at  simplifying  matters  and  at  making  hard 
things  easy. 

The  logical  definition  is  most  useful  when  it  is  ac- 
companied by  plenty  of  explanation  and  illustration. 
It  is  the  final  step  in  a  process  of  thinking,  involving 
many  trials,  partial  definitions,  selections  and  rejections, 
and  tests  of  accuracy. 

108.  Assignments  in  Supplying  or  Narrowing  the 

Genus. 

In  the  following  the  genus  is  missing  or  else  is  too  large  to  be 
of  service.  Supply  it  if  it  is  missing ;  find  a  smaller  genus,  if  it  is 
too  large ;  and  perfect  the  definition. 

1.  A  dog  is  an  animal  that  eats  flesh. 

2.  A  coward  is  an  individual  who  runs  away. 

3.  A  bicycle  is  a  machine  with  two  wheels. 

4.  A  fly  has  two  wings. 

5.  A  novel  is  written  in  prose. 

6.  A  pipe  organ  is  played  by  the  use  of  air  currents. 

7.  A  friend  is  an  associate  that  can  be  trusted. 

8.  Clearness  is  an  essential  of  discourse. 

9.  Physiography  is  all  about  the  earth. 

109.  Assignments  in  Supplying  or  Completing  the 

Differentia. 

In  the  following  the  differentia  is  missing  or  else  is  not  sufii- 
ciently  specific,  that  is,  fails  to  give  a  detail  that  is  distinctive, 
characteristic,  peculiar,  and  exclusive.     Perfect  each  definition. 


ABSTRACTING  DEFINITIONS. 


323 


Term. 


Genus. 


Differentia. 


A  gentleman  is      .     .     . 

To  study  is 

Play  is 

Work  is 

"  Manifest  Destiny  "  was 

"  The  Stalwarts  "  were  . 
Quarantine  is    ...     . 

"  54-40  or  fight  "  was     . 

A  mugwump  was      .     . 
A  lyric  is 

The  Embargo  was     .     . 

Law  is 

An  "Insurgent"  is     .     . 

C.O.D.  is 


a  man 

to  read  and  think. 

activity. 

activity. 

a  political  belief    .     . 

those  Republicans  .    . 

enforced  isolation 
an    American    cam- 
paign cry. 

an  independent  voter. 

a  song. 

sovereign  prohib 
tion 

a  rule  of  action. 

{ a    Republican    Con- 

\     gressman.. 

a  commercial  term. 


of  honor. 


f  held      in      the 
1  United  States. 

of  the  sick. 


on  foreign  trade. 


110.    Assignments  in  Abstracting  Definitions. 

Abstract  a  logical  definition  from  the  following  passages ;  that 
is,  pick  out  from  each  passage  the  gentLS  and  the  differentia  for  the 
word  italicized  in  each.  You  may  have  to  infer  the  genus  or  part 
of  the  differentia. 

1.  "  Prophecy  "  has,  for  about  a  century,  narrowed  itself, 
in  common  parlance,  to  the  sense  of  "  prediction  "  ;  and  there 
are  many  readers  of  the  Bible  to  whom  the  terra  suggests 
nothing  more  than  the  foretelling  of  the  future.  It  is,  of 
course,  true  that  the  Hebrew  prophets  dealt  with  the  future, 
as  they  dealt  with  the  present  and  the  past.  But  the  refer- 
ence to  future  time  is  not  the  sole,  nor  even  the  chief,  func- 
tion of  prophecy.     The  pro-  in  prophecy  is  not  the  pro-  that 


324  EXPOSITION.  ' 

means  ^before'  but  the  pro-  that  means  'forth.'     Prophecy 
is 

2.  In  seeking  for  reliable  principles  on  which  just  criti- 
cism may  be  based,  we  must,  if  possible,  find  those  which  are 
broad  enough  to  include  all  art.  Otherwise  we  should  suspect 
them  of  not  being  fundamental  principles.  For  literature  is, 
in  fact,  one  of  the  fine  arts.  Not  everything  that  is  written, 
of  course,  belongs  to  literature  proper ;  but  when  a  written 
product  becomes  a  part  of  what  has  well  enough  been  called 
belles-lettres,  —  as  a  poem,  for  example,  in  contradistinction 
from  a  patent  office  report,  —  it  belongs  to  the  art  of  literature, 
and  is  closel}^  allied  to  the  other  fine  arts ;  giving  us,  lijie 
them,  that  immediate  and  direct  satisfaction  of  a  high 
order  Avhich  we  call  aesthetic  pleasure,  or  delight.  Literature, 
as  we  shall  see,  gives  us  much  more  than  this,  but  this  it 
gives  us  in  common  with  the  other  arts.     Literature  is r 

3.  What  is  to  be  a  gentleman  ?  Is  it  to  have  lofty  aims  ; 
to  lead  a  pure  life ;  to  keep  your  honor  virgin;  to  have  the 
esteem  of  your  fellow-citizens  and  the  love  of  your  fireside ; 
to  bear  good  fortune  meekly ;  to  suffer  evil  with  constancy ; 
and  through  evil  or  good  to  maintain  truth  always  ?  Show 
me  the  happy  man  whose  life  exhibits  these  qualities,  and 
him  we  will  salute  as  gentleman,  whatever  his  rank  may  be. 

—  Thackeray  :   TJie  Four  Georges. 

4.  Side  by  side  with  biology  arose  about  this  time  the 
modest  and  almost  unnoticed  science  of  the  earth,  then  gen- 
erally called  physical  geography,  but  now  known  as  geology. 
This  was  a  small  seed  sown  in  the  eighteenth  century,  to 
grow  into  a  large  tree  only  in  our  time ;  yet  it  was  a  great  step 
when  Scilla  insisted  that  fossils  were  the  remains  of  living 
beings,  and  that  the  rocks  containing  them  were  formed 
gradually  under  lakes  or  seas.  And  when  Werner  taught 
men  to  study  the  earth's  crust,  and  Hutton  forced  them  to 


DEFINITION    WITH  EXPLANATIONS.  325 

see  that  nature  is,  and  has  always  been,  building  up  our 
present  world  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  past,  the  foundations 
were  laid  for  the  real  study  of  the  earth  and  its  formation. 
Meanwhile  William  Smith  toiled  over  England,  mapping  out 
the  position  of  each  rock  as  he  saw  it,  and  thus  led  the  way 
to  a  long  series,  of  careful  observations,  by  which  the  whole 
geology  of  England  has  been  worked  out. 

—  Buckley:  History  of  Natural  Science,  p.  281. 

111.  Assignments  in  Correcting  Faulty  Definitions. 

The  following  definitions  are  faulty  either  (1)  because  they 
repeat  some  form  of  the  word  to  be  defined  and  call  for  synonymous 
expressions,  or  (2)  because  they  fail  to  simplify  matters.  Correct 
them. 

(a)  Citizenship  is  the  state,  condition,  privilege,  or  duty  of 
being  a  citizen'. 

(b)  A  natural  right  is  a  right  conferred  by  nature. 

(c)  Walking  is  the  precipitation  of  the  body  forward  by  means 
of  the  lower  extremities,  without  loss  of  equilibrium  or  of  upright 
posture. 

(d)  Graduation  is  the  act  of  being  graduated. 

(e)  Passing  a  course  means  getting  above  a  certain  mark. 
(/)  Preparing  for  college  is  going  over  the  studies  required. 
(g)   An  education  is  the  training  you  receive  in  schools. 

(h)  Foreign  missions  are  missions  to  foreigners. 

(i)  R.S.V.P.  means  repondez  s'il  vous  plait. 

(J)  P.P.C.  vne&ns  pour  prendre  conge, 

(k)  verb.  sap.  means  verbum  sat  sapienti. 


112.   Assignments  in  Definition  with  Explanations. 

\  A.  Select  one  of  the  following  questions.  Talk  with  other 
people  about  it.  Then  try  to  answer  it.  Write  down  the  first 
answer  that  occurs  to  you  and  as  you  continue  to  think  about  it, 
write  every  thought  just  as  it  comes,  asking  yourself  at  each  step. 


326  EXPOSITION. 

—  is  this  true  ?  does  it  need  qualification  ?  are  there  exceptions  to 
it?  can  I  make  a  more  accurate  statement  in  other  words?  If  you 
will  do  this,  you  will  approximate  more  and  more  closely  to  a 
logical  definition  as  you  proceed.  At  the  end  set  down  your  final 
definition  in  logical  form.  You  may  revise  this  theme  for  the 
English,  —  for  clearness,  coherence,  accuracy,  —  but  in  the  revision, 
do  not  omit  any  of  the  steps  in  your  thinking. 

1.  What  is  it  to  study? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  curiosity  ? 

3.  What  is  a  gentleman  ? 

4.  What  is  a  true  sport  ? 

5.  What  is  meant  by  "  the  square  deal "  ? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  "  special  privileges  "  in  political  discussion? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  "  the  interests  "  in  political  discussion? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  "  the  laboring  man  "  ? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  "  the  average  student  "  ? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  "  the  home  girl "  ? 

11.  What  is  meant  by  "  the  modern  girl "  ? 

12.  What  is  meant  by  "  the  old-f dshpned  girl "  ? 

13.  What  is  meant  by  "  the  practical  politician  "? 

14.  What  is  meant  by  "  business  methods  "  ? 

15.  What  is  meant  by  "  a  purely  academic  view  "  ? 

16.  What  is  meant  by  "  Americanism  "  ? 

17.  What  is  meant  by  "  public  opinion  "  ? 

18.  What  is  meant  by  "  law  honest "  ? 

B.    What  definitions  do  you  infer  from  the  following  ? 

In  each  generation  there  have  been  men  of  fashion  who 
have  mistaken  themselves  for  gentlemen.  They  are  un- 
interesting enough  while  in  the  flesh,  but  after  a  generation 
or  two  they  become  very  quaint  and  curious,  when  considered 
as  specimens.  Each  generation  imagines  that  it  has  discov- 
ered a  new  variety,  and  invents  a  name  for  it.  The  dude,  the 
swell,  the  dandy,  the  fop,  the  spark,  the  macaroni,  the  blade, 


DEFINITION   WITH  EXPLANATIONS.  327 

the  popinjay,  the  coxcomb,  —  these  are  butterflies  of  differ- 
ent summers.  There  is  here  endless  variation,  but  no 
advancement.  One  fashion  comes  after  another,  but  we 
cannot  call  it  better.  One  would  like  to  see  representatives 
of  the  different  generations  together  in  full  dress.  What 
variety  in  oaths  and  small  talk !  What  anachronisms  in 
swords  and  canes  and  eyeglasses,  in  ruffles,  in  collars,  in 
wigs !  What  affluence  in  powders  and  perfumes  and  colors  ! 
But  would  they  "  know  each  other  there  "  ?  The  real 
gentlemen  would  be  sure  to  recognize  each  other.  Abraham 
and  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Confucius  would  find  much  in 
common.  Lancelot  and  Sir  Philip  Sidney  and  Chinese  Gor- 
don would  need  no  introduction.  Montaigne  and  Mr.  Spec- 
tator and  the  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table  would  fall 
into  delightful  chat.  But  would  a  "  swell "  recognize  a 
"  spark  "  ?  And  might  we  not  expect  a  "  dude  "  to  fall  into 
immoderate  laughter  at  the  sight  of  a  "popinjay"  ? 

—  Crothers  :  The  Evolution  of  a  Gentleman,  Atlantic, 
81:715. 

2.  In  his  effective  answer  to  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer's  argu- 
ment against  the  metric  system,  —  which,  oddly  enough,  is 
like  spelling  reform  in  that  it  finds  its  chief  opponents  in 
Great  Britain,  —  President  Mendenhall  remarked  that 
"  ignorant  prejudice  "  is  not  so  dangerous  an  obstacle  to 
human  progress,  nor  so  common,  as  what  may  be  called 
"intelligent  prejudice,"  meaning  thereby  "an  obstinate  con- 
servatism which  makes  people  cling  to  what  is  or  has  been, 
merely  because  it  is  or  has  been,  not  being  willing  to  take 
the  trouble  to  do  better,  because  already  doing  well,  all  the 
while  knowing  that  doing  better  is  not  only  the  easier,  but  is 
more  in  harmony  with  existing  conditions.  Such  conserva- 
tism is  highly  developed  among  English-speaking  people  on 
both  sides  of  the  Atlantic."     It  is  just  such  conservatism  as 


328  EXPOSITION. 

this  that  must  be  overcome  by  those  of  us  who  wish  to  see 
our  English  orthography  continue  its  lifelong  efforts  toward 
simplification.  —  Matthews  :  Simplification  of  English  Spell- 
ing, Century,  62 :  617. 

3.  To  get  the  knowledge  of  individual  aptitude  and  desire, 
and  to  help  in  the  resultant  choice  of  school  work,  is  the 
province  of  the  mysterious  being  whom  I  call  the  Vocation 
Teacher. 

The  Vocation  Teacher,  as  such,  does  not  exist.  A  good 
many  regular  teachers  and  parents  try  to  assist  the  youth 
with  whom  they  come  in  contact  to  choose  their  life-work 
wisely ;  but  this  advice  and  help  should  not  be  a  merely  in- 
cidental duty :  it  should  occupy  the  whole  time  of  a  care- 
fully trained  vocational  expert.  In  every  high  school  there 
should  be  a  vocational  expert. 

—  Miller  :  Atlantic,  November,  1909. 

Generalized  Narrative. 

113.  A  method  of  connecting  new  ideas  with  old  that 
has  often  proved  useful  in  expository  writing  is  the 
narrative  method.  By  this  method  the  writer  adopts  a 
plausible  time-order  for  the  steps  or  stages  of  his  exposi- 
tion. The  time-order  is  for  a  typical  case,  not  for  any 
particular  ease.  That  is,  the  events  are  related  not  as 
they  actually  happened  in  the  experience  of  a  particular 
person,  but  as  they  might  have  happened,  logically,  to 
any  person  of  a  certain  class  under  given  circumstances. 
Hence  this  kind  of  narrative  is  said  to  be  generalized. 
Generalized  narrative  is  frequently  used  to  explain  the 
principle  underlying  mental  development,  experiments, 
processes  of  manufacture,  feats  of  skill,  and  the  like. 
The  following  selection  illustrates  this  method.     Mac- 


GENERALIZED  NARRATIVE.  329 

aulay  wishes  to  explain  to  us  the  rather  striking  and 
novel  idea  that  to  learn  a  new  language  is  to  acquire  a 
new  soul.  He  makes  the  thought  clear  by  connecting  it 
with  the  events  in  the  progress  of  a  scholar — any  scholar, 
not  a  particular  one  —  who  is  learning  a  new  language. 

It  was  justly  said  by  the  Emperor  Charles  the  Fifth,  that 
to  learn  a  new  language  was  to  acquire  a  new  soul.  He 
who  is  acquainted  only  with  the  writers  of  his  native  tongue, 
is  in  perpetual  danger  of  confounding  what  is  accidental 
with  what  is  essential,  and  of  supposing  that  tastes  and 
habits  of  thought,  which  belong  only  to  his  own  age  and 
country,  are  inseparable  from  the  nature  of  man.  Initiated 
into  foreign  literature,  he  finds  that  principles  of  politics 
and  morals,  directly  contrary  to  those  which  he  has  supposed 
to  be  unquestionable,  because  he  never  heard  them  questioned, 
have  been  held  by  large  and  enlightened  communities  ;  that 
feelings,  which  are  so  universal  among  his  contemporaries 
that  he  had  supposed  them  instinctive,  have  been  unknown 
to  whole  generations ;  that  images,  which  have  never  failed 
to  excite  the  ridicule  of  those  among  whom  he  has  lived, 
have  been  thought  sublime  by  millions.  He  thus  loses  that 
Chinese  cast  of  mind,  that  stupid  contempt  for  everything 
beyond  the  wall  of  his  celestial  empire,  which  was  the  effect 
of  his  former  ignorance.  New  associations  take  place  among 
his  ideas.  He  doubts  where  he  formerly  dogmatized.  He 
tolerates  where  he  formerly  execrated.  He  ceases  to  con- 
found that  which  is  universal  and  eternal  in  human  passions 
and  opinions  with  that  which  is  local  and  temporary.  This 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  effects  which  result  from  studying 
the  literature  of  other  countries ;  and  it  is  one  which  the 
remains  of  Greece,  composed  at  a  remote  period,  and  in  a 
state  of  society  widely  different  from  our  own,  are  peculiarly 
calculated  to  produce. 


330  EXPOSITION. 

The  following  is  a  generalized  narrative  of  the  sin- 
gular nervous  seizure  known  as  "  buck  fever  " :  — 

In  its  mysterious  attack  it  gets  entire  control  of  a  man's 
nerves,  and  at  a  most  inopportune  time.  He  may  have  been 
standing  for  an  hour  or  more,  with  rifle  cocked,  waiting 
eagerly  for  the  coming  of  a  buck  that  in  doubling  his  tracks 
will  be  sure  to  approach  within  easy  reach  of  his  shot.  The 
buck  does  approach,  bounding  toward  him  with  such  rapidity 
that  the  very  sight  upsets  the  nerves  of  the  green  hunter 
and  throws  his  anatomy  out  of  gear.  His  eyes  bulge,  his 
teeth  chatter,  his  knees  knock  together,  and  even  his  memory 
is  so  far  dethroned  that  he  forgets  he  has  a  rifle.  If  he  does 
remember  it,  and  attempt  to  raise  the  weapon  to  his  shoulder,, 
there  is  nothing  in  it  that  is  likely  to  do  any  damage  to  the 
buck,  for  its  wabbling  muzzle  sends  the  ball  either  into  the 
earth  or  among  the  clouds. 

114.        Assignments  in  Generalized  Narrative. 

A.  By  means  of  a  generalized  narrative  explain  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing processes  for  a  person  who  wishes  to  make  personal  use  of 
the  information :  — 

(1)  Finding  the  Pole  Star.  (2)  Measuring  the  height  of  a 
tree  (or  of  any  other  tall  object  the  top  of  which  is  inaccessible). 
(3)  Making  chocolate  creams  at  home.  (4)  Teaching  a  pointer 
(or  setter).     (5)  Figure  skating.     (6)  Sailing  against  the  wind. 

B.  Imagine  yourself  to  be  a  visitor  at  a  colonial  homestead  of 
two  hundred  years  ago.  Explain,  as  if  you  had  witnessed  it,  the 
process  of  spinning  wool  with  an  old-fashioned  spinning-wheel. 

C.  By  means  of  a  generalized  narrative  explain  the  process  of 
drawing  a  book  from  the  public  library. 

D.  By  means  of  a  generalized  narrative  give  a  clear  under- 
standing of  one  of  the  following.  Pretend  to  give  the  events  or 
experiences  of  a  day,  or  of  a  week,  in  each  case.     Remember  that 


COMPARISON  OR  ANALOGY.  331 

the  events  or  experiences  must  be  typical,  that  is,  representative  of 
the  class,  and  likely  to  happen  to  any  one  in  it. 

(1)  The  farm  hand.  (2)  The  athlete.  (3)  The  shop-girl. 
(4)  The  newsboy.  (5)  The  commuter.  (6)  The  shopper. 
(7)  The  borrower.  (8)  The  banker.  (9)  The  village  store- 
keeper.    (10)  The  society  girl. 

E.  Suppose  George  Washington  should  come  back  to  see  how 
thhigs  are  going,  and  should  engage  in  conversation  with  you ;  and 
suppose  you  should  happen  to  mention  or  he  should  happen  to 
catch  sight  of  some  of  the  following:  sewing-machines,  phono- 
graphs, telegrams,  automobiles,  street-cars,  ocean  liners,  Pullman 
cars,  electric  lights,  sky-scrapers,  gasoline,  asphalt,  trunk  lines, 
fountain  pens,  repeating  arms.  X-rays,  breakfast  foods,  suffragettes, 
postage  stamps,  quinine,  conservation,  Sunday  schools,  searchlights, 
Dreadnaughts,  subways.  Christian  Endeavorers,  Boy  Scouts,  hobble- 
skirts,  diet  kitchens,  composite  photographs,  roller  skates.  Do 
you  see  how  by  the  narrative  method,  or  by  the  dialogue  method, 
you  could  make  an  exposition  of  the  theme,  "Social  Change  in 
America  during  the  Last  Century  "  ?     Try  it. 

Comparison  or  Analogy. 

115.  Sometimes  the  meaning  of  the  obscure  idea  can 
be  brought  out  most  effectively  by  means  of  comparison 
or  analogy,  a  specific  instance  or.  an  example.  The 
ideas  chosen  for  this  comparison  should  be  ideas  with 
which  the  reader  is  likely  to  be  familiar.  Thus  Mr. 
Bryce,  wishing  to  make  clear  the  dangers  of  representa- 
tive government,  uses  in  the  following  an  easily  under- 
stood analogy  :  — 

The  mass  of  a  nation  are,  an/i  must  be,  like  passengers 
on  board  an  ocean  steamer,  who  hear  the  clank  of  the  engine 
and  watch  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  and  admire  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  larger  wheels,  and  know  that  steam  acts  by  ex- 
pansion, but  do  not  know  how  the  less  conspicuous  but  not 


332  EXPOSITION, 

less  essential  parts  of  the  machinery  play  into  the  other 
parts,  and  have  little  notion  of  the  use  of  fly-wheels  and 
connecting-rods  and  regulators.  ...  In  the  early  stages  of 
national  life,  the  masses  are  usually  as  well  content  to  leave 
governing  to  a  small  class,  as  passengers  are  to  trust  the 
captain  and  the  engineers.  But  when  the  masses  obtain, 
and  feel  that  they  have  obtained,  the  sovereignty  of  the 
country,  this  acquiescence  can  no  longer  be  counted  on. 
Men  without  the  requisite  knowledge  or  training;  men  who, 
to  revert  to  our  illustration,  know  no  more  than  that  steam 
acts  by  expansion,  and  that  a  motion  in  straight  lines  has  to 
be  converted  into  a  rotary  one ;  men  who  are  not  even  aware 
of  the  need  for  knowledge  and  training ;  men  with  little 
respect  for  precedents,  and  little  capacity  for  understanding 
their  bearing  —  may  take  command  of  engines  and  ship, 
and  the  representative  assembly  may  be  filled  by  those  who 
have -no  sense  of  the  dangers  to  which  an  abuse  of  the  vast 
powers  of  the  assembly  may  lead. 

Macaulay,  in  order  to  explain  the  somewhat  puzzling 
statement  that  freedom  is  the  only  cure  for  the  evils  of 
freedom,  uses  the  familiar  idea  of  the  prisoner  newly 
released  from  his  cell :  — 

There  is  only  one  cure  for  the  evils  which  newly  acquired 
freedom  produces ;  and  that  cure  is  freedom.  When  a 
prisoner  first  leaves  his  cell  he  cannot  bear  the  light  of 
day ;  he  is  unable  to  discriminate  colors  or  recognize  faces. 
But  the  remedy  is,  not  to  remand  him  into  his  dungeon,  but 
to  accustom  him  to  the  rays  of  the  sun.  The  blaze  of  truth 
and  liberty  may  at  first  dazzle  and  bewilder  nations  which 
have  become  half  blind  in  the  house  of  bondage.  But  let 
them  gaze  on,  and  they  will  soon  be  able  to  bear  it.  In  a 
few  years  men  learn  to  reason.  The  extreme  violence  of 
opinion  subsides.    Hostile  theories  correct  each  other.     The 


COMPARISON  OR   ANALOGY.  333 

scattered  elements  of  truth  cease  to  contend,  and  begin  to 
coalesce.  And  at  length  a  system  of  justice  and  order  is 
educed  out  of  the  chaos. 


116.    Assignments  in  Comparison  or  Analogy. 

A.  What  comparison,  contrast,  or  analogy  is  used  to  explain  the 
main  idea  of  the  following? 

1.  Do  you  know,  the  more  I  look  into  life,  the  more 
things  it  seems  to  me  I  can  successfully  lack  —  and  continue 
to  grow  happier.  How  many  kinds  of  food  I  do  not  need, 
nor  cooks  to  cook  them,  how  much  curious  clothing,  nor 
tailors  to  make  it,  how  many  books  that  I  never  read,  and 
pictures  that  are  not  worth  while !  The  farther  I  run  the 
more  I  feel  like  casting  aside  all  such  impedimenta  —  lest  I 
fail  to  arrive  at  the  far  goal  of  my  endeavor.  I  like  to  think 
of  an  old  Japanese  nobleman  I  once  read  about  who  orna- 
mented his  house  with  a  single  vase  at  a  time,  living  with 
it,  absorbing  its  message  of  beauty,  and  when  he  tired  of  it, 
replacing  it  with  another.  I  wonder  if  he  had  the  right 
way,  and  we,  with  so  many  objects  to  hang  on  our  walls, 
place  on  our  shelves,  drape  on  our  chairs,  and  spread  on  our 
floors,  have  mistaken  our  course  and  placed  our  hearts  upon 
the  multiplicity  rather  than  the  quality  of  our  possessions ! 

—  Gkaysox  :  A  Day  of  Pleasant  Bread. 

2.  In  England  athletics  are  ruled  by  the  spirit  of  sport ; 
in  the  United  States,  by  the  spirit  of  competition.  The 
sweeping  popularity  of  American  football  is  the  most  con- 
spicuous feature  of  a  national  awakening  to  the  importance 
of  a  hardy,  outdoor  play  as  a  vital  part  of  modern  educa- 
tion. It  is  true,  however,  that  the  young  American  is  not 
genuinely  fond  of  organized  athletic  sports  unless  they 
carry  the  chance  of  ^'whipping"  somebody  else,  which  is 


334  EXPOSITION. 

why  he  makes  of  them  a  "  problem ''  instead  of  a  pastime 
through  his  campus  years.  —  Paine  :  The  Spirit  of  School 
and  College  Sports,  Century,  71 :  99. 

B.  Think  of  some  good  comparison,  example,  specific  instance, 
or  analogy  that  can  be  used  to  explain  one  of  the  following.  Then 
write  the  explanation. 

1.  Why  we  dislike  certain  persons. 

2.  The  musical  scale. 

3.  Telepathy. 

4.  Taking  an  examination. 

5.  Reading. 

6.  How  a  bank  makes  money. 
J.  Laziness. 

8.  Business  methods. 

9.  Making  a  speech. 

10.  Hard  work. 

11.  Learning  a  trade. 

12.  Manual  training. 

13.  Domestic  science. 

14.  A  system  of  ventilation. 

15.  The  U.  S.  postal  system. 

16.  Postal  savings. 

Reconciling  Contradictory  Ideas. 

117.  A  subject,  as  was  stated  above,  may  be  obscure 
not  only  because  our  ideas  about  it  are  in  a  state  of 
confusion,  but  because  it  apparently  contains  ideas  tbiit 
are  inconsistent  or  contradictory,  or  that  do  not  seem 
to  belong  together.  When  this  is  the  case,  it  is  the 
business  of  exposition  to  find  some  principle  or  notion 
that  will  reconcile  the  contradictory  ideas  and  reduce 
them  to  unity.     A  homely  illustration  of  such  a  contra- 


RECONCILING   CONTRADICTORY  IDEAS.         335 

diction  and  the  solution  of  it  is  seen  in  the  old  story  of 
the  milkmaid  who,  having  spilled  a  pailful  of  milk  on 
the  ashes  of  the  hearth,  instantly  gathered  it  up  again 
and  put  it  back  in  the  pail  without  losing  a  drop.  The 
story  at  first  hearing  seems  untrue  because  of  the  seem- 
ing contradiction  between  the  known  results  of  spilling 
milk  on  ashes  and  the  reported  action  of  the  milkmaid. 
All  becomes  clear,  however,  as  soon  as  we  learn  that 
the  milk  was  frozen  solid.  The  new  idea  reconciles 
the  two  contradictory  terms  and  reduces  them  to  con- 
sistency and  unity. 

An  interesting  example  of  this  method  of  explanation 
is  presented  in  the  following  :  — 

Every  one  who  has  collated  early  books  generally,  more 
especially  English  books  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  must  have  been  puzzled  by  the  minute  differences 
between  one  copy  and  another  which  are  often  to  be  found 
on  every  sheet.  Mr.  Aldis  Wright  has  proved  that  in  a 
few  cases,  always  of  books  for  which  there  was  a  sudden 
and  large  demand,  these  differences  prove  that  the  text 
was  set  up  simultaneously  from  the  same  copy  on  two  or 
more  different  presses.  But  an  explanation  of  this  kind 
does  not  apply  to  such  a  book  as  the  first  quarto  of  King 
Lear,  of  which  no  two  of  the  extant  copies  agree,  nor  to 
Paradise  Lost,  of  which  we  know  that  only  1500  copies 
were  printed.  Bibliographers  are  in  the  habit  of  saying 
that  "  corrections "  were  introduced  during  the  process  of 
printing  off,  but  this  would  imply  that  the  author  stood 
over  the  pressmen  while  they  were  at  work,  which  in  the 
case  of  the  blind  Milton  is  absurd.  Moreover,  the  differ- 
ences are  not  of  the  nature  of  real  corrections ;  they  are 
concerned  chiefly  with   punctuation.      When   they  extend 


336  EXPOSITION. 

to  letters,  the  number  of  letters  is  mostly  the  same,  and  it 
is  impossible  so  to  marshal  the  differences  as  to  show  that 
any  one  set  of  them  is  a  distinct  improvement  on  any  other. 
Mr.  Wynne  Baxter,  addressing  the  Bibliographical  So- 
ciety of  London  on  "  Early  Editions  of  Milton,"  offered  the 
true  explanation  of  these  minor  irregularities  in  old  books. 
A  bit  of  family  history  came  to  Mr.  Baxter's  help.  His 
grandfather  was  a  printer,  and  precisely  because  he  observed 
that  the  leather  balls  used  for  more  than  three  centuries  to 
ink  the  type  had  a  tendency  to  pull  the  letters  out  of  the 
form,  he  invented  the  first  inking  roller.  From  the  time  of 
Shakespeare  to  that  of  Milton  is  the  worst  and  most  care- 
less period  of  English  printing.  The  more  carelessly  the 
forms  were  locked,  the  more  often  would  the  balls  pull  out 
the  letters  from  them,  and  the  more  opportunities  would  the 
pressman  have  for  replacing  any  he  found  lying  about  in 
the  wrong  places.  The  theory  was  justly  greeted  by  the 
society  by  a  round  of  applause.  It  may  not  explain  all  the 
differences,  and  the  more  it  is  tested  the  better ;  but  it  will 
be  surprising  if  it  is  not  found  to  explain  a  great  deal. 

118.  Assignments  on  Reconciling  Contradictory  Ideas. 

Explain  one  of  the  following  passages  to  a  student  in  the 
grade  below  yours.  Find  if  possible  a  principle  which  will  recon- 
cile the  seeming  contradiction. 

1.  Laziness  is  the  great  motive  power  of  civilization. 

2.  Verbosity  is  cured  by  a  wide  vocabulary. 

3.  And  peradventure  had  he  seen  her  first 

She  might  have  made  this  and  that  other  world 
Another  world  for  the  sick  man ;  but  now 
The  shackles  of  an  old  love  straiten'd  him. 
His  honor  rooted  in  dishonor  stood, 
And  faith  unfaithful  kept  him  falsely  true. 

—  Tennyson  :  Lancelot  and  Elaine. 


DIVISION,  337 

4.  Let  us  be  of  good  cheer,  however,  remembering  that 
the  misfortunes  hardest  to  bear  are  those  that  never  come. 

—  Lowell  :  Democracy. 

5.  Treason  doth  never  prosper.     What's  the  reason  ? 
For  if  it  prospers,  none  dare  call  it  treason. 

—  Harrington  (1613). 

6.  Ward  has  no  heart  they  say ;  but  I  deny  it. 
He  has  a  heart,  and  gets  his  speeches  by  it. 

—  Samuel  Eogers  on  Lord  Dudley  (  Ward), 

7.  The  cure  for  democracy  is  more  democracy. 

8.  Eools  rush  in  where  angels  fear  to  tread. 

9.  Lest  one  good  custom  should  corrupt  the  world. 

—  Tennyson  :   Tlie  Passing  of  Arthur. 


Division. 

119.  When  the  subject  is  too  large  or  too  complex 
to  be  taken  in  at  a  single  glance,  the  writer  may  make 
use  of  division.  This  is  a  process  of  separating  an  idea 
into  its  natural  parts  according  to  some  essential  prin- 
ciple. For  example,  if  we  wish  to  explain  to  some  one 
the  meaning  of  the  term  music,  we  divide  it,  on  the 
principle  of  the  means  employed  in  producing  it,  into 
(1)  Vocal  Music,  (2)  Instrumental  Music  ;  if  we  want 
to  explain  the  term  Public  School  System,  we  may 
divide,  on  the  principle  of  the  stage  of  development  of 
the  pupils,  into  (1)  Primary  Grades,  (2)  Grammar 
Grades,  (3)  High  School. 

To  obtain  a  good  division  it  is  necessary  to  divide 
upon  a  single  principle,  otherwise  we  shall  obtain  what 


338  EXPOSITION. 

is  known  as  a  cross-division.  Thus,  if  we  wish  to  treat 
of  the  horse,  we  may  divide  horses,  on  the  principle  of 
color,  into  white,  black,  and  bay  horses  ;  or  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  use,  into  draught-horses,  carriage-horses,  and 
race-horses  ;  but  it  will  not  do,  using  the  principles 
both  of  color  and  of  use,  to  divide  into  bay  horses, 
black  horses,  and  draught-horses,  for  in  that  case  the 
divisions  will  overlap. 

Division  of  some  kind  is  necessary  in  every  form  of 
writing,  since  the  writer  must  take  up  ideas  one  at  a 
time  ;  but  an  expository  essay  may  divide  and  do  no 
more  than  divide.  If  well-considered,  the  division  will 
of  itself  be  instructive  and  enlightening,  and  will  tend 
to  clear  away  difficulties.  Thus  the  purpose  of  the 
following  passage  is  exhausted  in  making  a  twofold 
division  into  the  literature  of  knowledge  and  the  litera- 
ture of  power ;  yet  the  division  itself  is  so  sound  and 
true  that  the  subject  needs  hardly  any  further  discussion. 
The  division  has  answered  the  question  "  What  is  litera- 
ture?" 

In  that  great  social  organ,  which  collectively  we  call 
literature,  there  may  be  distinguished  two  separate  of&ces 
that  may  blend,  and  often  do  so,  but  capable  severally  of 
a  severe  insulation,  and  naturally  fitted  for  reciprocal 
repulsion.  There  is,  first,  the  literature  of  knowledge,  and 
secondly,  the  literature  of  power.  The  function  of  the  first 
is,  to  teach;  the  function  of  the  second  is,  to  move:  the 
first  is  a  rudder,  the  second  an  oar  or  a  sail.  The  first 
speaks  to  the  mere  discursive  understanding;  the  second 
speaks  ultimately,  it  may  happen,  to  the  higher  understand- 
ing or  reason,  but  always  through  affections  of  pleasure  and 
sympathy.  —  De  Quince y  :  Alexander  Pope. 


division;.  339 

120.  Assignments  in  Division. 

A.  Look  at  the  table  of  contents  of  any  text-book  on  physical 
geography.  On  what  principle  are  the  main  divisions  made  ?  On 
what  principle  are  the  divisions  of  secondary  rank  made  ? 

B.  Turn  to  the  opening  chapter  of  any  text-book  on  civil 
government.  Do  you  find  a  division?  On  what  principle  is  it 
made? 

C.  Make  a  division  of  all  the  books  at  your  home,  arranging 
them  in  classes  according  to  some  obvious  principle. 

D.  Tell  a  friend  from  a  distance  something  about  the  pupils 
in  your  school.  Speak  of  the  various  kinds  of  pupils  that  you 
have  noticed. 

E.  How  would  you  classify  horses  according  to  their  moral 
characters  ?  Try  writing  an  essay  on  "  The  Good  and  Evil  Influ- 
ences of  Horses  on  Men,"  for  a  meeting  of  an  imaginary  Horses' 
Rights  Association. 

F.  What  division  of  the  subject  is  proposed  in  the  following? 

1.  Among  the  many  remarkable  features  of  the  war  be- 
tween the  states  the  blockade  system  was  perhaps  the  most 
extraordinary.  For  extent  and  effectiveness  it  stands  with- 
out a  parallel  in  history.  Isolation  on  the  part  of  one  of  the 
belligerents  doubtless  shaped  the  result  in  larger  measure 
than  in  any  preceding  war  of  anything  like  the  same  meas- 
ure. For  it  is  to  be  questioned  if  there  was  ever  before  a 
great  people  so  far  from  self-sustaining  as  was  the  South  in 
1861.  Indeed,  only  by  means  of  the  modern  facilities  of 
transportation  could  it  have  been  possible  for  a  territory  so 
large  and  so  populous  to  have  fallen  into  a  state  of  such 
absolute  dependence  on  the  outside  world,  ^ot  only  was 
steam  an  indispensable  auxiliary  of  the  Federals,  rendering 
the  invasion  and  retention  of  the  revolting  territory  practi- 
cable, but  it  had  fostered  at  the  South  a  fatal  economic  con- 


340  EXPOSITION. 

dition  which  made  the  failure  of  the  Confederacy  a  foregone 
conclusion  from  the  first.  How  this  abnormal  state  told 
when  isolation  came,  and  how  desperately  the  people  strove 
to  remedy  it  forms  a  curious  and  pathetic  chapter  of  the  war 
history.  —  Dodge  :  Domestic  Ecoyiomy  m  the  Confederacy, 
Atlantic,  58  :  229. 

2.  Since  the  day  when  the  Monitor  engaged  the  Merrimac 
in  Hampton  E,oads  it  has  been  acknowledged  that  in  the 
Kevolving  Tower  a  new  and  powerful  element  has  been  in- 
troduced into  naval  warfare.  We  propose  in  this  paper  to 
give  the  history  of  the  origin  and  progress  of  this  invention  ; 
to  show  that  only  a  small  portion  of  its  capabilities  have 
been  brought  into  actual  use  ;  and  that,  as  developed  in  the 
mind  of  its  inventor,  it  will  not  only  render  practically  use- 
less the  ponderous  iron-clad  vessels  which  the  French  and 
English  are  constructing  at  such  enormous  cost,  but  will  also 
make  all  of  our  great  harbors  absolutely  impregnable  to  the 
combined  navies  of  the  world.  —  Guernsey  :  TJiq  Revolving 
Tower,  Harper^ s  Magazine,  26  :  241. 

3.  The  purpose  of  this  article  is  to  show  the  possibilities 
that  lie  in  developing  methods  of  assembling  that  will  insure 
accuracy,  economy,  and  standardization,  but  before  giving 
aiiy  concrete  examples,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  briefly  the 
elements  that  directly  affect  the  cost  of  assembling  opera- 
tions. The  determination  of  proper  methods  and  processes 
of  assembling  are  peculiarly  difficult,  since  the  elements  of 
human  judgment  and  skill  enter  so  largely  into  this  work. 
It  is  a  far  more  puzzling  proposition  than  that  of  analyzing 
and  determining  the  best  method  for  machining  any  particular 
part.  For  this  reason  the  study  of  assembling  work  requires 
particular  care  and  especially  keen  analysis.  —  Spaxgen- 
berg:  Elements  of  Assembling  Operations,  Machinery,  Sep- 
tember, 1909. 


TYPES   OF  EXPOSITORY   WRITING.  341 

4.  The  fatality  and  frequency  of  tornadoes  in  the  great 
Central  West  have  recently  invested  these  phenomena  with 
an  interest  which  must  continually  deepen  as  the  regions 
they  ravage  become  more  thickly  populated.  The  tornado 
is  a  local  disturbance,  its  sweep  limited,  its  duration  at  a 
given  point  but  a  few  moments,  and  it  is  speedily  exhausted, 
like  the  raving  maniac,  by  the  paroxysmal  expenditure  of 
energy.  But  if  it  lacks  the  vast  geographical  scope,  the 
stately,  ponderous  tread,  and  the  self-sustaining  life  of  the 
ocean-hurricane  or  the  regular  continental  cyclone,  its  masked, 
eagle-like  movement  and  concentrated  intensity  make  the 
fleeting  meteor,  which  strikes  and  scars  the  earth  as  if  it 
were  hurled  by  a  "  supernal  power,"  a  more  dreaded  visitant 
and  often  a  greater  engine  of  destruction.  There  seems  to 
be  a  widespread  impression  that,  with  the  deforesting  and 
settlement  of  the  West,  tornado  visitations  have  increased, 
so  that  a  prominent  journal  recently  raised  the  question 
whether  their  frequency  and  destructiveness  will  not  have 
"  a  permanent  effect  on  the  settlement  and  prosperity  of  the 
country."  We  are  even  told  that  in  some  places  the  alarm 
created  by  these  storms  is  so  great  that  ''  the  people  are  not 
only  digging  holes  in  the  ground  and  building  various  cyclone- 
proof  retreats  but  in  many  instances  persons  are  preparing 
to  emigrate  and  abandon  the  country  entirely."  Whatever 
may  be  thought  of  such  reports,  the  gravity  of  the  subject 
warrants  the  present  inquiry  into  the  nature  and  causes  of 
our  interior  tornadoes,  as  well  as  into  the  extent  to  which 
they  can  be  foreseen  and  guarded  against.  —  Maury  :  Tor- 
nadoes and  Their  Causes,  North  American,  135 :  230. 

Types  of  Expository  "Writing. 

121.  In  certain  directions  the  expository  process  has 
been  so   persistently  and  systematically  applied   that 


342  EXPOSITION, 

several  types  of  expository  writing  are  easily  recognized, 
and  have  been  given  distinctive  names.  Each  seems  to 
have  its  preferred  methods  of  exposition,  —  methods 
that  have  been  found  especially  suitable  to  its  usual 
subject  matter,  and  to  its  special  purpose.  Thus  we 
easily  identify  the  following :  — 

The  Newspaper  Editorial^  even  when  we  find  it  re- 
printed and  uncredited  in  a  book,  with  its  air  of  imme- 
diate contemporaneous  comment. 

The  Book  Review^  whether  serious  and  thorough,  or 
light  and  shallow  in  its  contents. 

The  Character  Sketchy  with  its  analysis  of  traits  and 
its  ready  interpretation  of  so  complex  a  thing  as  a  life. 

The  Scientific  Essay ^  like  Mill's  essay  on  Liberty^  or 
Spencer's  essay  on  The  Philosophy  of  Style^  with  its 
severity  of  method,  its  careful  accuracy ;  its  preference 
for  definition,  example,  and  precise  division. 

The  G-eneralized  Narrative  or  Description^  which  pre- 
tends to  be  about  a  particular  person  or  thing  when  it 
is  really  about  the  general  class  to  which  the  person  or 
thing  belongs. 

The  Historical  Essay^  like  Macaulay's  Olive  or 
Hastings^  or  Froude's  Ccesar^  which  takes  a  limited 
period  or  an  eminent  personage  for  its  subject  and  both 
describes  and  explains  to  us  the  period  or  the  man. 

The  Familiar  or  Personal  Essay,  like  some  of  Thack- 
eray's Roundahout  Papers,  with  its  apparent  disregard 
of  method,  and  its  author's  whimsical  philosophizing 
and  self -confession. 

Of  course  these  more  prominent  types  do  not  begin 
to  cover  the  whole  field  of  expository  writing,  and,  like 
the  other  types  which  have  not  yet  acquired  distinctive 


A    TYPE  STUDY  IN  EXPOSITION,  348 

names,  they  depend  for  their  effectiveness  upon  the  use 
of  the  universal  methods  and  principles  of  explanation 
that  have  been  set  forth  in  this  chapter.  All  alike  aim 
to  explain  a  general  idea  that  is  novel,  or  apparently 
in  contradiction  with  other  ideas,  or  too  complex  for  a 
single  effort  of  the  mind,  and  all  alike  use  for  that  pur- 
pose, as  need  may  arise,  definition  partial  or  complete, 
division  partial  or  complete,  specific  instances  or  ex- 
amples, comparisons,  contrasts,  analogies,  particulars, 
and  cause  and  effect. 

A  Type  Study  in  Exposition. 

122.  ■  The  following  is  from  the  London  (England)  Spectator.  It 
illustrates  some  of  the  chief  excellences  of  exposition.  Is  the  idea 
expressed  in  the  title  new  to  you?  Is  it  difficult?  What  other 
function  of  the  poet  is  referred  to  in  the  word  "  Tyrtseus  "?  What 
contradictory  ideas  does  Kipling  reconcile  by  his  poem  "  The 
Native-Born"?  What  divisions  and  subdivisions  do  you  discover 
in  this  essay  ?  Make  an  outline.  Does  the  outline  render  the  sub- 
ject less  complex?  Find  a  partial  definition  of  "True  poets." 
What  division  of  the  class,  poets,  is  suggested  in  connection  with 
this  partial  definition ?  Coipplete  the  definition.  Can  you  make 
from  this  essay  a  definition  of  "interpreter"?  Which  of  the 
common  methods  of  exposition  is  used  most  often  in  this  essay  ? 
Point  out  some  other  methods  of  exposition  that  you  find  in  this 
essay.  Is  there  a  passage  of  generalized  narration  ?  State  in  your 
own  words  the  main  thought  of  this  essay.  Do  you  now  see  how 
you  could  easily  write  an  original  essay  on  "  The  American  Poet 
as  Interpreter  to  Our  Nation  "?  What  poems  of  Whittier,  Long- 
fellow, Emerson,  Holmes,  Lowell,  Julia  Ward  Howe,  and  others 
might  you  mention  as  especially  in  point  ? 

The  Poet's  Function  as  Biterpreter. 

People  are  apt  to  talk  as  if  the  poet  had  no  function 
in  the  modern  world,  or  at  any  rate  as  if  his  only  function 


344  EXPOSITION. 

were  to  amuse  and  entertain,  and  as  if  the  State,  in  its 
higher  and  political  aspect,  had  no  need  of  him.  But 
machinery  is  not  everything;  nor  is  it  the  least  true  to  say 
that  the  song  of  the  singer  is  never  something  done,  some- 
thing actual.  Tennyson  put  this  with  splendid  insight  when 
in  his  plea  for  the  poet,  he  reminded  the  world  that  — 

"  The  song  that  stirs  a  nation's  heart 
Is  in  itself  a  deed." 

While  the  possible  need  for  a  Tyrtseus  exists,  and  that 
need  can  never  be  wholly  banished,  the  poet  must  always 
have  a  real  use.  But  there  are  other  functions  no  less 
real,  and  hardly  less  important,  which  a  poet  may  perform 
in  the  modern  State.  He  may  act  as  interpreter  to  the 
nation,  and  show  it,  as  only  he  can,  the  true  relations  and 
the  true  meaning  of  the  different  parts  which  make  up  the 
whole.  The  great  difficulty  of  every  nation  is  its  inability 
to  realize  and  understand  itself.  Could  it  do  this  truly,  a 
nation  could  hardly  take  the  wrong  road,  and  bring  itself  to 
ruin  and  confusion.  But  few  nations  have  this  faculty,  and 
therefore  they  need  so  sorely  an  interpreter ;  one  who  by  his 
clear  vision  shall  show  them  what  they  are,  and  whither 
they  tend.  And  for  the  mass  of  mankind,  only  the  poet 
can  do  this.  The  ordinary  man,  whether  rich  or  poor, 
educated  or  uneducated,  apprehends  very  little  and  very 
vaguely,  save  through  his  senses  and  his  emotions.  Maps 
and  figures,  dissertations  and  statistics,  fall  like  water  off  a 
duck's  back,  when  you  talk  to  him  of  the  British  Empire, 
of  the  magnitude  of  our  rule  in  India,  and  of  the  problem  of 
the  dark  races  ;  of  the  growth  of  the  English-speaking  people 
in  Canada  and  in  Australia ;  and  of  how  our  fate,  as  a  nation, 
is  inextricably  bound  up  with  the  lordship  of  the  sea.  He 
hears,  but  he  does  not  mark.  But  the  poet,  if  he  has  the 
gift  of   the  interpreter,  —  and   without   that  gift   in  some 


A    TYPE  STUDY  IN  EXPOSITION.  345 

shape  or  form  he  is  hardly  a  poet,  —  whether  he  works 
in  prose  or  verse,  can  bring  home  the  secrets  of  Empire 
and  the  call  of  destiny  to  the  hearts  of  the  people. 
Of  course,  he  cannot  touch  all,  but  when  he  does  touch, 
he  kindles.  He  lays  the  live  coal  on  men's  minds ;  and 
those  who  are  capable  of  being  roused  have  henceforth 
a  new  and  different  feeling  and  understanding  of  what 
he  tells. 

Mr.  Kipling's  fascinating  poem,  "  The  Native-Born,"  is  a 
reminder  to  us  of  how  large  a  share  he  possesses  of  this 
interpreting  power.  His  work  is  of  extraordinary  value  in 
making  the  nation  realize  itself,  especially  as  regards  the 
Empire  and  the  oneness  of  our  kin.  One  of  the  great  diffi- 
culties of  the  mere  politician  who  knows  himself  but  cannot 
interpret,  is  to. get  the  people  of  this  country  to  understand 
that  when  the  Englishmen  born  over-sea  assert  themselves 
and  express  their  glory  in  and  love  for  the  new  land,  they 
are  not  somehow  injuring  or  slighting  the  old  home.  When 
Englishmen  hear  of,  and  but  partly  understand,  the  ideas  of 
young  Australia,  young  Canada,  or  young  South  Africa,  as 
the  case  may  be,  they  sadly  or  bitterly  declare  that  there 
is  no  love  of  England  left  in  the  colonies,  and  that  the 
men  of  the  new  lands  think  only  of  themselves,  and  dis- 
like or  are  indifferent  to  the  mother  country.  The  way 
in  which  the  pride  and  exultation  of  the  "  native-born  "  is 
conveyed  to  the  reader  makes  that  pride  and  exultation 
misunderstood. 

When  we  hear  people  talk  a  language  which  we  do  not 
know,  we  are  always  apt  to  think  that  they  are  full  of  anger 
and  contempt,  and  that  we  are  the  objects  of  this  anger  and 
contempt.  Now  the  uninspired  social  analyst  or  the  statis- 
tic politician  might  have  preached  and  analyzed  for  years, 
and  yet  not  have  got  the  nation  to  understand  the  true  spirit 
of  the  "  native-born,"  and  how  in  reality  it  neither  slights 


346  EXPOSITION. 

the  old  land  nor  injures  the  unity  of  the  Empire.  His 
efforts  to  prove  that  the  passionate  feeling  of  the  "  native- 
born"  should  be  encouraged,  not  suppressed,  fall,  for  the 
most  part,  on  empty  ears.  He  may  convince  a  few  philoso- 
phers, but  the  great  world  heeds  him  not.  But  if  and  when 
the  true  poet  comes,  he  can  interpret  for  the  mass  of  men 
and  make  clear  and  of  good  omen  what  before  seemed  dark 
and  lowering.  Take  the  new  poem  by  Mr.  Kipling  to 
which  we  have  just  referred.  The  poet  does  not  reason  with 
us,  or  argue,  or  bring  proofs  —  he  enables  us  to  enter  into 
the  spirit  of  the  "  native-born,"  and  by  a  flash  of  that  light- 
ning which  he  brings  straight  from  heaven  he  makes  us 
understand  how  the  men  of  Australia,  and  Canada,  and 
Africa  feel  towards  the  land  in  which  they  were  born. 
Thus  interpreted,  their  pride  ceases  to  sound  harsh  to  our 
ears,  and  we  realize  that  the  "  native-born  "  may  love  their 
deep-blue  hills,  their  ice-bound  lakes  and  snow-wreathed 
forests,  their  rolling  uplands,  or  their  palms  and  canes,  and 
yet  not  neglect  their  duty  to  the  motherland  or  to  the 
Empire  and  the  race.  Surely  a  man  who  can  do  this  has  done 
something,  and  something  of  vast  importance,  for  the  whole 
English  kin.  He  has  dropped  the  tiny  drop  of  solvent 
acid  into  the  bowl,  and  made  what  was  before  a  turbid  mix- 
ture, a  clear  and  lucent  liquor.  But  we  must  not  write  of 
the  poem,  and  not  remind  our  readers  of  its  quality  by  a 
quotation.  To  show  its  power  of  interpretation,  take  the 
first  three  stanzas : 

u  "W'e've  drunk  to  the  Queen,  God  bless  her  ! 

We've  drunk  to  our  mothers'  land, 
We'  ve  drunk  to  our  English  brother 

(But  he  does  not  understand) ; 
We've  drunk  to  the  wide  creation 

And  the  Cross  swings  low  to  the  dawn  — 
Last  toast,  and  of  obligation  — 

A  health  to  the  Native-born  ! 


A    TYPE  STUDY  IN  EXPOSITION.  347 

"  They  change  their  skies  above  them 

But  not  their  hearts  that  roam  ! 
We  learned  from  our  wistful  mothers 

To  call  old  England  '  home,' 
We  read  of  the  English  ^ylark, 

Of  the  spring  in  the  English  lanes, 
But  we  screamed  with  the  painted  lories 

As  we  rode  on  the  dusty  plains  ! 

"  They  passed  with  their  old-world  legends  — 

Their  tales  of  wrong  and  dearth  — 
Our  fathers  held  by  purchase 

But  we  by  the  right  of  birth ; 
Our  heart's  where  they  rocked  our  cradle, 

Our  love  where  we  spent  our  toil, 
And  our  faith  and  our  hope  and  our  honor 

We  pledge  to  our  native  soil !  " 

The  stanzas,  and  those  that  follow,  are  a  positive  initiation. 
As  we  read  them  our  hearts  beat  and  cheeks  glow,  and  as  by 
fire  we  realize  the  feeling  of  the  "  native-born "  —  how  he 
loves  his  own  land,  and  yet  gives  his  homage  to  "the  dread 
high  altars  "  of  the  race. 

Let  no  one  suppose  when  we  speak  thus  of  this  particular 
poem  that  we  imagine  it  is  going  suddenly  to  become  a 
household  word  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  or  that 
the  world  will  immediately  grasp  its  meaning.  That  is 
given  to  few  poems.  But  without  doing  this,  the  poem,  we 
believe,  will  have  its  effect  on  public  opinion.  Before  it 
becomes  popular  in  the  ordinary  sense,  it  will  work  its  way 
into  the  minds,  first,  of  the  more  imaginative  politicians  and 
journalists  and  men  of  letters.  Then  through  them  and  by 
various  channels  it  will  filter  down  and  'affect  the  mass  of 
the  people.  What  will  happen  will  be  not  unlike  that  which 
happened  in  regard  to  the  feeling  of  the  nation  toward  the 
privates  of  the  British  army.  Mr.  Kipling,  in  his  capacity 
of  interpreter,  and  by  means  of  his  Barrack-Room  Ballads, 


348  EXPOSITION, 

made  the  nation  appreciate  and  understand  its  soldiers 
infinitely  better  than  they  had  ever  done  before.  Indeed, 
it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  by  means  of  this  process  of 
interpretation  he  changed  ^he  attitude  of  the  nation.  But 
though  many  thousands  of  people  read  how  — 

*'  It's  Tommy  this  an'  Tommy  that,  an'  '  chuck  him  out,  the  brute  ' ; 
But  it's  '  saviour  of  his  country  '  when  the  guns  begin  to  shoot," 

the  change  was  for  the  most  part  wrought  indirectly.  When 
you  let  fly  into  a  whole  heap  of  balls,  all  are  moved  and  af- 
fected, though  only  one  or  two  feel  the  impact  direct.  It  is 
enough  if  the  poet  touches  those  who  can  influence  the  rest. 
Another  example  of  Mr.  Kipling's  power  of  interpretation 
as  a  poet  is  to  be  seen  in  his  sea-poems.  "  The  Bolivar,"  "  The 
Clampherdown"  and  "The  Flag  of  England"  are  of  incalcula- 
ble value  in  making  Englishmen  realize  that  they  have  been 
and  are  still  the  lords  of  the  sea,  and  what  that  priceless 
heritage  means.  You  may  talk  to  Robinson,  the  bill-broker, 
till  you  are  black  in  the  face,  about  the  command  of  the  sea, 
and  its  political,  commercial,  and  moral  importance.  He 
agrees,  no  doubt,  and  seems  quite  intelligent,  but  in  reality 
marks  you  not.  If,  however,  you  can  get  him  to  listen  to 
what  the  four  winds  made  answer  when  they  were  asked 
what  and  where  is  the  flag  of  England,  who  knows  but  you 
may  have  lighted  a  flame  of  inspiration  which  will  remain 
with  him,  and  make  him  realize  the  grandeur  and  high  des- 
tiny of  this  realm  of  England.  Take,  again,  the  way  in 
which  Mr.  Kipling  has  interpreted  the  native  East  for  Eng- 
lishmen, and  made  them  understand,  as  but  few  of  them 
understood  before,  the  gulf  that  stretches  between  the  East 
and  West,  and  realize  that  East  and  West,  though  each  has 
its  destiny,  can  never  be  one.  Yet  another  example  of  Mr. 
Kipling's  power  of  interpretation  is  to  be  found  in  the  mar- 
vellous  poem  which  he  wrote  on  the  American  spirit,  taking 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  EXPOSITION,  349 

the  Chicago  riots  as  his  "peg."  The  poet,  as  we  pointed 
out  at  the  time,  was  not  quite  as  careful  as  he  ought  to  have 
been  to  avoid  wounding  the  feelings  of  our  American  kins- 
folk, but  for  insight  and  exposition  it  was  a  work  of  rare 
genius.  It  interpreted  a  certain  side  of  the  American  char- 
acter to  perfection.  And  to  do  this  at  that  moment  was  a 
most  useful  work,  for  over  here  men  were  bewildered  and 
distracted  by  what  was  happening  in  the  West.  We  have 
spoken  above  only  of  Mr.  Kipling,  but  it  must  not  be  sup- 
posed that  we  regard  him  as  the  only  poet  who  acts  as  in- 
terpreter to  the  nation.  We  chose  him  because  he  does  so 
to  such  practical  effect.  All  true  poets  are,  as  we  have  said, 
interpreters,  each  in  his  own  sphere.  If  they  are  not,  they 
are  mere  embroiderers  of  melodious  words. 

No,  as  long  as  States  are  made  and  unmade,  and  men  in 
their  communities  grope  and  wander,  asking  for  the  light, 
so  long  will  the  world  need  the  poet's  help.  While  there 
is  anything  to  interpret  and  make  clear  to  men  who  will  act 
on  what  comes  to  them  through  their  emotions,  but  will  re- 
main cold  to  the  mere  teachings  of  reason,  the  poet  and  his 
art  will  survive.  When  we  are  all  so  coldly  reasonable  that 
we  cannot  be  stirred  by  Chevy  Chase,  then,  but  not  till  then, 
will  the  poet's  occupation  be  gone.  Meantime,  let  us  remem- 
ber that  we  lost  America  because  we  did  not  understand  the 
feelings  of  the  "  native-born,"  and  thank  heaven  we  have  a 
poet-interpreter  to  help  save  us  from  another  such  treason 
to  our  race  as  that  George  III  and  Lord  North  incited. 

123-    Miscellaneous  Assignments  in  Exposition. 

A.  Write  an  editorial  for  the  school  paper  on  "  Why  we  Lost 
the  Game,"  or  on  "  A  Needed  Reform  in  the  Study  Hour,"  or  on 
"  Our  Prospects  in  Debate." 

B.  From  any  newspaper  select  a  news  item  that  stirs  you  to 
admiration  or  indignation,  and  write  a  brief  editorial  on  it  as  if 


350 


861 


352  EXPOSITION, 

for  a  city  paper.     Paste  the  news  item  on  the  first  page  of  your 
theme. 

C.  Write  a  brief  comment  on  the  last  sermon  or  lecture  you 
have  listened  to.  First  state  its  theme  or  central  idea.  Then  repro- 
duce the  two  or  three  main  ideas.  If  your  own  comment  is  on  the 
sermon  or  lecture  as  a  whole,  reserve  your  comment  until  the  end. 
If  it  is  on  several  things,  introduce  it  piecemeal  where  it  is  most 
pertinent. 

D.  Explain  by  setting  up  a  series  of  comparisons  and  contrasts, 
one  of  the  following:  (1)  Men  of  thought  and  men  of  action. 
(2)  Wit  and  humor.  (3)  Manual  Training  School  and  Trade 
School.  (4)  Education  and  training,  (o)  Single-entry  and  double- 
entry  bookkeeping.  (6)  News  writing  and  editorial  writing. 
(7)  Hem-stitch  and  lock-stitch. 

E.  Explain,  by  dividing  and  defining,  one  of  the  following: 
(1)  Joints  in  woodworking.  (2)  Seams  in  dressmaking.  (3) 
Strokes  in  rowing.  (4)  Door-hinges.  (5)  Systems  of  physical, 
culture.     (6)  Methods  of  piano-playing. 

F.  Figures  10  and  11  are  illustrations  by  different  artists  of  a 
certain  passage  of  Dickens's  David  Copperjield.  If  you  have  read 
Dmrid  Copperjield,  find  the  passage,  and  point  out  and  explain  the 
differences  in  the  pictures. 


CHAPTER   X. 

ARGUMENTATION. 

I.  Simple  Argumentation  and  Informal  Debating. 

124.  By  argumentation  a  person  tries  to  convince 
others  that  they  ought  to  believe  or  to  act  as  he  wishes 
them  to  believe  or  to  act.  The  very  fact  that  he  makes 
the  attempt  implies  that  there  are  at  least  two  ways, 
more  or  less  reasonable,  of  believing  or  acting  in  regard 
to  the  matter  which  he  has  at  heart.  There  would  be  no 
room  for  argument  about  the  matter  if  all  thought  alike 
about  it.  Suppose  that  the  question  has  arisen  in  the 
school  circles  of  your  town  whether  the  single  long 
session  with  a  very  short  noon  and  early  dismissal,  or 
the  double-session  plan  (such  as  prevails  in  the  lower 
grades)  is  best  for  your  High  School ;  and  suppose  that 
you  have  thought  about  it  and  personally  are  in  favor 
of  the  former.  Your  reasons  are  sufficient  for  you,  and 
probably  also  for  others  who  think  as  you  do.  Perhaps 
they  run  about  in  this  fashion  ;  — 

The  Single- Session  Plan  is  Better.     Because 

1.  It  wastes  less  time  for  nooning. 

2.  It  saves  several  daylight  hours  for  work  at  home 
or  for  earning  money  if  that  is  necessary. 

3.  It  gives  opportunity  for  out-of-door  exercise  at 
favorable  hours. 

353 


354  '    ARGUMENTATION. 

4.  It  necessitates  learning  how  to  study  alone,  at 
home,  thus  increasing  self-reliance. 

These  and  other  good  reasons  are  convincing  to  your- 
self, and  they  may  be  convincing  to  some  other  people 
who  are  indifferent  about  the  matter  and  who  have  not 
heard  any  arguments  from  those  who  believe  in  the 
double-session  plan.  But  you  may  be  sure  that  those 
who  believe  in  the  double  session  have  good  reasons  too, 
and  that  if  the  single-session  idea  is  to  prevail,  you  will 
have  to  find  out  what  their  reasons  are  and  prepare 
yourself  to  deal  with  these. 

By  talking  with  people  at  home  and  in  school  about 
the  question,  and  by  reading  whatever,  has  been  written 
on  the  subject,  you  find  out  what  reasons  the  advocates 
of  the  double  session  have  for  believing  as  they  do. 
Perhaps  you  discover  that  they  believe  that 

The  Double-Session  Plan  is  Better.     Because 

1.  It  gives  time  for  a  warm  dinner  at  home,  at  mid- 
day. 

2.  It  leaves  two  hours  before  six  for  work  at  home, 
or  for  earning  money. 

3.  It  keeps  young  people  off  the  streets  in  the  after- 
noon hours. 

4.  It  enables  them  to  get  most  of  their  lessons  in 
study  periods  at  school. 

Now  it  becomes  clear  to  you  that  as  these  reasons 
cannot  be  neglected  or  ignored,  the  work  of  argumenta- 
tion is  twofold  in  dealing  successfully  with  a  con- 
troversy :  — 


assignm£:nts  in  argumentation.        355 

1.  It  is  constructive  in  part,  involving  the  presentation 
of  reasoDS  in  favor  of  your  own  view.  Such  reasons 
are  called  Direct  Proof. 

2.  It  is  destructive  in  part,  requiring  attention  to  the 
doubts  and  objections  that  exist  in  the  minds  of  those 
who  think  differently  from  yourself,  and  the  effort  to 
overthrow  or  counterbalance  the  arguments  in  which 
these  doubts  and  objections  are  expressed.  This  is 
called  Indirect  Proof  or  Refutation. 

Every  question  has  two  sides.  Study  and  understand  both 
sides,  no  matter  which  you  advocate. 

125.    Assignments  on  the  Work  of  Argumentation. 

A.  Select  one  of  the  following.  Make  a  list  (as  above)  of 
reasons  for  or  against  the  proposition.  Also  make  a  list  of  the 
reasons  which  will  probably  be  offered  by  those  who  think  differ- 
ently from  yourself.     Bring  both  lists  to  class. 

1.  The  village  or  township  high  school  gives  more  thorough 
training  than  the  big  city  high  school. 

2.  Monday  is  better  than  Saturday  for  the  weekly  school  holiday. 

3.  The  Commercial  Course  is  better  than  the  Manual  Training 
Course. 

4.  The  study  of  mathematics  is  more  profitable  than  the  study 
of  English. 

5.  Physical  training  is  more  important  than  mental  training. 

6.  Football  is  a  better  school  sport  than  baseball. 

7.  The  study  of  history  is  more  profitable  than  the  study  of 
fiction. 

8.  A  five-minute  recess  every  hour  is  better  than  one  fifteen- 
minute  recess  each  half-day. 

9.  Study  at  home  is  better  than  study  in  school. 

10.  Bookkeeping  is  more  important  than  Latin. 

B.  Think  of  all  the  reasons  you  can  in  favor  of  the  death 
penalty  for  murder.     As  you  think  of  a  reason  make  a  written 


356  ARGUMENTATION, 

note  of  it.  Then  compare  your  list  of  notes  with  the  following 
brief.  Which  of  your  arguments  has  the  writer  of  this  brief  an- 
ticipated? Which  has  he  evidently  not  thought  of?  Which  of  his 
arguments  are  direct ?  Which  are  refutation?  What  answer  can 
you  make  to  sotne  of  his  arguments  ?     Write  your  answer. 

Proposition:    Capital    punishment    should    be    abolished. 
Because 

A.  It  does  not  protect  society  from  murder.     For 

1.  Murders    are    still    committed,   though    the 

penalty  has  existed  thousands  of  years. 

2.  Juries  acquit  many  whom  they  would  con- 

vict v^^ere  the  penalty  life  imprisonment. 

B.  It  is  immoral  in  its  influence.     For 

1.  It    imperils   the    lives    of    innocent    people 

wrongfully  accused  of  murder. 

2.  It    destroys    the    idea    that  human   life   is 

sacred.     For 
a.   It  takes  human  life. 

3.  If  an  innocent  man  is  convicted  and  hanged, 

the  mistake  cannot  be  corrected. 

4.  The  penalty  is  not  applied  impartially.     For 

a.  Much  depends  on  the  skill  and  eloquence 

of  the  defendant's  lawyer. 

b.  Men  of  great  wealth  are  rarely  convicted, 

while    the    friendless  criminal  is    rarely 
acquitted. 

5.  There   is   no  reforming  influence  in  capital 

punishment.     For 
a.   It  takes   no  account  of  heredity  and  en- 
vironment as  causes  of  crime. 

C.  Its  abolition  has  been  followed  by  good  results.   For 

1.   In  Michigan,  Maine,  and  Wisconsin,  murders 
have  decreased  since  it  has  been  abolished. 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION,  357 

2.   People   have   turned   their   thoughts   to   re- 
forming criminals  instead  of  killing  them. 

C.  What  parts  of  the  following  plan  or  brief  show  that  the 
writer  is  aware  of  opposition  and  is  prepared  to  meet  it  ?  Imagine 
yourself  an  advocate  of  the  juiy  system.  What  points  in  favor  of 
that  system  are  not  answered  below  ? 

Proposition  :  Hie  jury  system  should  be  abolished.  Be- 
cause 

A.  It  makes  just  verdicts  hard  to  secure.     For 

1.  Juries  are  often  ignorant. 

2.  Juries  are  often  prejudiced.     For 

a.  They  are  influenced  by  church  or  society 

affiliations. 

b.  They  are  prejudiced  against  railroad  cor- 

porations. 

B.  The  trial  of  all  cases  by  judges  without  a  jury  would 

be  better.     For 

1.  Judges   are   intelligent   and   experienced   in 

deciding  intricate  matters. 

2.  Judges  are  not  prejudiced  by  church  or  so- 

ciety affiliations. 

3.  Judges  are  not  moved  by  the  eloquent  soph- 

istry of  lawyers. 

4.  Judges  are  not  easily  deceived  by  witnesses. 

5.  Judges  can  be  just  to  corporations  as  well  as 

to  the  poorest  suitor. 

C.  The  substitution  of  judges  for  juries  would  not  be 

a  dangerous  innovation.     For 

1.  Appellate,  Chancery,    and    Supreme    Courts 

now  get  along  without  juries. 

2.  Many  conservative  lawyers  have  long  favored 

the  substitution. 


358  ARGUMENTATION, 

D.  Find  out  the  meaning  of  the  terms  "  initiative  "  and  "  refer- 
endum." Then  study  the  following  arguments,  especially  with  the 
purpose  of  finding  answers  to  some  of  them  if  possible. 

Proposition :  The  Initiative  and  Referendum  should  he 
made  parts  of  our  state  constitutions.     Because 

A.   They  will  purify  legislation.     For 

I.    They  will  prevent  the  passage  of  corrupt  and 
unjust  laws.     For 
1.    Legislatures   knowing    that    the    people 
stand  ready  to  repudiate  any  vicious 
or  unjust  act,  will  make  better  and 
wiser  laws. 
II.    They  are  the  only  complete  and  specific  cure 
for  bribery.     For 
1.    They  deprive  legislators  of  their  present 
monopoly  of  legislative  power.     The 
legislator  would  not  be  bribed  because 
he  can  no  longer  "  deliver  the  goods." 
They  will  destroy  the  lobbyist  and  overthrow 
le  "  boss.''     For 
1.   Each  derives  his  power  from  his  ability 
to  influence,  or  even  to  buy  and  sell, 
legislation  giving  special  privileges. 

IV.   They  will  break  the  power  of  trusts  and  mo- 
nopolies.    For 

1.  These  cannot  control  legislation  through 
the  lobby. 

2.  The  people  will  by  the  initiative  be  able 
to  pass  laws  to  regulate  these. 

V.  Refutation.  The  argument  that  the  voters 
will  be  bribed  to  vote  directly  for  bad 
laws  is  unsound.     For 


ASSIGNMENTS   IN  ARGUMENTATION.  359 

1.    While   it   might    be    easy   to   bribe   the 
representative  of  a  district,  it  would 
be  impossible  to  bribe  a  whole  district 
or  state.     For 
a.    A  large  majority  of  the  people  are 
always  eager  to  be  on  the  side 
of  justice. 
VI.    They  will  make  it  easier  to  elect  good  men  to 
office.     For 
1.   There  will  be  no  incentive  to  buy  men  be- 
fore they  are  elected  or  to  elect  men 
who  can  be  bought  after  election. 

B.  They  will  open  the  door  to  legislative  progress. 

For 
I.    They  will  give  the  people  the  power  to  get 
the  legislation  they  want   without  dis- 
couraging delays. 
II.    They  will  elevate  the  press  and  greatly  dimin- 
ish partisanship.     For 
1.   Attention  will  then  be  directed  to  meas- 
ures rather  than  to  party  or  indi- 
vidual success. 

III.  They  will  educate  the  people  as  no  other  insti- 

tution can.     For 

a.    They  require  that  the  voters  study 
the  questions  before  the  people. 

IV.  They  will  simplify   the  law  and  aid  in   its 

enforcement. 

C.  They  will  act  as  a  safety  valve  against  discontent, 

and  as  a  guarantee  against  disorder.     For 
I.   They  will  clarify  the  political  atmosphere  and 

settle  questions  permanently. 
II.    Revolutions  have  little  chan  ce  where  the  people 
can  easily  change  their  laws. 


360  ARGUMENTATION. 

Argumentation  and  Exposition. 

126.  The  chief  difference  between  argumentation  and 
exposition  is  in  the  purpose.  In  exposition  the  purpose 
is  to  explain  the  subject  to  those  who  do  not  under- 
stand it  clearl}^  In  argumentation  the  purpose  is  not 
merely  to  explain;  it  is  to  convince  and  to  persuade 
others  to  accept  one  belief  or  one  course  of  action 
rather  than  another. 

Again,  the  vrriter  of  exposition  assumes  that  there  is  only- 
one  true  explanation  of  the  subject  and  that  people  are 
ready  and  willing  to  accept  this  explanation  as  fast  as 
he  can  make  it  clear  to  their  minds.  But  the  writer  of 
argument  can  assume  no  such  thing.  He  knows  that 
some  people  dissent  entirely  from  his  view  and  will 
resist  accepting  it  as  long  as  they  can.  He  knows  that 
others  are  indifferent  and  must  be  interested  and  per- 
suaded. 

Yet  the  -writer  of  argument  must  use  exposition  con- 
stantly as  a  help  in  convincing  and  persuading.  He 
will  feel  it  necessary  to  explain  carefully  every  step  of 
his  reasoning,  and  to  that  end  he  will  use  freely  any  of 
the  means  of  exposition  that  we  have  studied  —  connect- 
ing new  ideas  with  old,  definition,  generalized  narration, 
comparison  and  analogy,  specific  instances,  examples, 
contrasts,  reconciling  contradictory  ideas,  dividing  and 
subdividing.  But  he  will  use  these  only  because  they 
help  him  to  convince  and  persuade  people  to  believe  or 
to  act  as  he  wishes  them  to  believe  or  to  act. 

Notice  with  what  fullness  the  writer  of  the  following 
illustrates  his  meaning,  before  he  announces  his  propo- 
sition in  the  fourth  sentence. 


DESCRIPTION  AND  NARRATION  IN  ARGUMENT,    361 

If  a  servant  girl  applies  for  employment  in  a  family,  we 
demand,  first  of  all,  a  recommendation  from  her  former 
mistress.  If  a  clerk  is  searching  for  work,  he  carries  with 
him,  as  the  sine  qua  non  of  success,  certain  letters  which 
vouch  for  his  honesty  and  ability.  If  a  skilled  workman 
becomes  discontented  and  throws  up  his  job,  he  has  a  right 
to  ask  of  his  employer  an  indorsement,  and  armed  with  that 
he  feels  secure.  Why  should  not  every  immigrant  be  re- 
quired to  bring  a  similar  indorsement  with  him?  Why 
should  we  allow  the  whole  riffraff  of  creation  to  come  here, 
either  to  become  a  burden  on  our  charitable  institutions,  or 
to  lower  the  wages  of  our  own  laborers  by  a  cutthroat  com- 
petition ?  We  have  already  had  too  much  of  that  sort  of 
thing.  If  a  foreigner  has  notified  the  nearest  United  States 
consul  of  his  intention  to  emigrate,  and  the  consul,  after 
due  examination,  has  pronounced  him  a  proper  person,  let 
him  come  by  all  means.  W^e  have  room  enough  for  such 
persons.  But  for  immigrants  who  have  neither  capital  nor 
skill,  who  never  earned  a  living  in  their  own  country  and 
will  never  earn  one  here,  we  have  no  room  whatever. 

—  N.  Y.  Sun. 

Description  and  Narration  in  Argument. 
127.  The  writer  of  argument  will  also  use  description 
and  narration,  to  help  him  win  people  to  his  view.  If, 
for  instance,  he  is  arguing  against  long  examinations, 
he  will  likely  find  it  a  good  argument  to  describe  the 
looks  of  the  examination  room  and  of  the  teacher  and 
pupils  after  they  have  been  engaged  in  an  examination 
for  two  or  three  hours.  If  he  is  arguing  in  favor  of  a 
law  to  limit  the  hours  of  labor  for  factory  women,  he 
will  describe  some  of  the  scenes  that  may  be  witnessed 
in  factories  where  conditions  are  bad.     He  may  tell  the 


362 


AUG  UMENTA  TION. 


story  of  one  of  these  overworked  women  to  bring  his 
hearers  to  his  view.  But  he  will  use  narration  and 
description,  as  he  uses  exposition,  solely  because  they 
help  him  to  convince  and  persuade  people  to  believe  or 
to  act  as  he  wishes  them  to  believe  or  to  act. 


128.    Assignments  in  the  Relation  of  Argumentation 
to  Exposition,  Description,  and  Narration. 

A.  With  the  help  of  the  marginal  analysis,  decide  whether  the 
writer  of  the  following  is  aware  that  there  are  two  sides  to  the 
question.     What  methods  of  exposition  does  he  employ? 


The  proposition: 
Slang  should  be 
eschewed. 


Slang  does  not 
truly  character- 
ize its  object. 

Examples : 
'fast,'  'slow,' 
'brick,'  'cut 
up,'  '  bore.' 


Slang  fails  to 
discriminate 
shades  of 
meaning. 


I  think  there  is  one  habit,  —  I  said  to 
our  company  a  day  or  two  afterwards, — 
worse  than  that  of  punning.  It  is  the 
gradual  substitution  of  cant  or  slang  terms 
for  words  which  truly  characterize  their  ob- 
jects. I  have  known  several  very  genteel 
idiots  whose  whole  vocabulary  had  deli- 
quesced into  some  half  dozen  expressions. 
All  things  fell  into  one  of  two  great  cate- 
gories,—  fast  or  slow.  Man's  chief  end 
was  to  be  a  brick.  When  the  great  calami- 
ties of  life  overtook  their  friends,  these  last 
were  spoken  of  as  being  a  good  deal  cut 
up.  Nine  tenths  of  human  existence  were 
summed  up  in  the  single  word,  bore.  These 
expressions  come  to  be  the  algebraic  sym- 
bols of  minds  which  have  grown  too  weak 
or  indolent  to  discriminate.  They  are  the 
blank  checks  of  intellectual  bankruptcy ;  — 
you  may  fill  them  up  with  what  idea  you 
like ;  it  makes  no  difference,  for  there  are 
no  funds  in  the  treasury  upon  which  they 


ASSIGNMENTS  IN  ARGUMENTATION. 


363 


When  freely 
used,  it  corrupts 
and  starves 
vocabulary. 


Its  source  is 
contemptible. 


Objection  : 
The  Autocrat 
sometimes  uses 
slang  himself. 

Reply  : 
(a)  On  rare 
occasions  a 
slang  phrase 
may  be  precisely 
what  is  needed. 


are  drawn.  Colleges  and  good-for-nothing 
smoking  clubs  are  the  places  where  these 
conversational  fungi  spring  up  most  luxu- 
riantly. Don't  think  I  undervalue  the 
proper  use  and  application  of  a  cant  word 
or  phrase.  It  adds  piquancy  to  conversa- 
tion, as  a  mushroom  does  to  a  sauce.  But 
it  is  no  better  than  a  toadstool,  odious  to 
the  sense  and  poisonous  to  the  intellect, 
when  it  spawns  itself  all  over  the  talk  of 
men  and  youths  capable  of  talking,  as  it 
sometimes  does.  As  we  hear  slang  phrase- 
ology, it  is  commonly  the  dish-water  from 
the  washings  of  English  dandyism,  school- 
boy or  full-grown,  wrung  out  of  a  three- 
volume  novel  which  had  sopped  it  up,  or 
decanted  from  the  pictured  urn  of  Mr. 
Verdant  Green,  and  diluted  to  suit  the 
provincial  climate. 

The  young  fellow  called  John  spoke  up 
sharply  and  said,  it  was  "  rum  "  to  hear  me 
^'  pitchin'  into  fellers  "  for  "  goin'  it  in  the 
slang  line,"  when  I  used  all  the  flash  words 
myself  just  when  I  pleased. 

I  replied  with  my  usual  forbearance.  — 
Certainly,  to  give  up  the  algebraic  symbol 
because  a  or  6  is  often  a  cover  for  ideal 
nihility,  would  be  unwise.  I  have  heard  a 
child  laboring  to  express  a  certain  condi- 
tion, involving  a  hitherto  undescribed  sen- 
sation (as  I  supposed),  all  of  which  could 
have  been  sufficiently  explained  by  the 
participle  —  bored.  I  have  seen  a  country 
clergyman,  with  a  one-story  intellect  and  a 


364 


ARG  UMENTA  TION. 


(b)  Absolute 
proscription  is 
not  advocated 
by  the  Autocrat. 


(c)  A  slang 
phrase  may  be 
filled  with 
meaning  by 
man  of  thought. 


one-horse  vocabulary,  who  has  consumed 
his  valuable  time  (and  mine)  freely,  in 
developing  an  opinion  of  a  brother-minis- 
ter's discourse  which  would  have  been 
abundantly  characterized  by  a  peach-down- 
lipped  sophomore  in  the  one  word  —  slow. 
Let  us  discriminate,  and  be  shy  of  absolute 
proscription.  I  am  omniverbivorous  by 
nature  and  training.  Passing  by  such 
words  as  are  poisonous,  I  can  swallow  most 
others,  and  chew  such  as  I  cannot  swallow. 
Dandies  are  not  good  for  much,  but  they 
are  good  for  something.  They  invent  or 
keep  in  circulation  those  conversational 
blank  checks  or  counters  just  spoken  of, 
which  intellectual  capitalists  may  some- 
times find  it  worth  their  while  to  borrow 
of  them.  —  Holmes  :  The  Autocrat  of  the 
Breakfast  Table,  II,  p.  353. 


B.  Make  a  careful  analysis  of  the  following :  To  what  extent 
is  exposition  used  ?  What  sentences  are  intended  to  meet  possible 
objections  ? 

1.  The  death  of  Caesar  was  an  irreparable  loss.  It  in- 
volved the  state  in  civil  wars  for  many  a  year,  until,  in  the 
end,  it  fell  again  under  the  supremacy  of  Augustus,  who 
had  neither  the  talent,  nor  the  will,  nor  the  power  to  carry 
out  Caesar's  beneficent  plans.  Csesar's  murder  was  a  sense- 
less act.  Had  it  been  possible  at  all  to  restore  the  Repmblic, 
it  would  have  inevitably  fallen  into  the  hands  of  a  most 
profligate  aristocracy,  who  would  have  sought  nothing  but 
their  own  aggrandizement,  would  have  demoralized  the 
people  still  more,  and  would  have  established  their  own 
greatness  upon  the  ruins  of  the  country.     It  is  only  necessary 


EXPOSITION  AND  ARGUMENT.  365 

to  recollect  the  latter  years  of  the  Republic,  the  depravity 
and  corruption  of  the  ruling  classes,  the  scenes  of  violence 
and  bloodshed  which  constantly  occurred  in  the  streets  of 
Rome,  to  render  it  evident  that  peace  and  security  could 
not  be  restored  except  by  the  strong  hand  of  a  sovereign. 
The  Roman  world  would  have  been  fortunate  if  it  had  sub- 
mitted to  the  mild  and  beneficent  sway  of  Csesar. 

—  ScHMiTz  :  History  of  Rome, 

2.  An  abuse  like  our  spoils  system  does  not  remain 
stationary.  Either  it  will  be  reformed,  or  it  will  increase 
by  its  own  momentum,  till  we  shall  see,  at  first  cautiously 
and  under  specious  pretenses,  and  finally  as  a  matter  of 
course,  all  the  best  offices  in  the  army  and  navy  appropriated 
at  every  change  of  administration  on  the  theory  ^'  To  the 
victors  belong  the  spoils."  And  why  not  ?  It  would  be  as 
reasonable  and  just  to  make  changes  in  military  and  naval 
offices  on  party  grounds  as  it  is  in  the  civil  service.  If 
such  changes  are  good  for  the  civil  service,  they  ought  to  be 
good  for  other  branches  of  the  service.  This  is  the  way  the 
advocates  of  rotation  would,  argue;  and  although  such  a 
development  of  the  spoils  system  would  be  deprecated  by 
all  friends  of  good  administration,  we  must  not  be  too  con- 
fident it  will  not  occur. 

—  Andrews  :  Administrative  Reform,  28. 

3.  Competition  is  the  best  security  for  cheapness,  but  by 
no  means  a  security  for  quality.  In  former  times,  when 
producers  and  consumers  were  less  numerous,  it  was  a  se- 
curity for  both.  The  market  was  not  large  enough  nor  the 
means  of  publicity  sufficient  to  enable  a  dealer  to  make  a 
fortune  by  continually  attracting  new  customers  :  his  success 
depended  on  his  retaining  those  that  he  had ;  and  when  a 
dealer  furnished  good  articles,  or  when  he  did  not,  the  fact 
was  soon  known  to  those  whom  it  concerned,  and  he  ac- 


366  ARGUMENTATION. 

quired  a  character  for  honest  or  dishonest  dealing  of  more 
importance  to  him  than  the  gain  that  would  be  made  by 
cheating  casual  purchasers.  But  on  the  great  scale  of  mod- 
ern transactions,  with  the  great  multiplication  of  competition 
and  the  immense  increase  in  the  quantity  of  business  com- 
peted for,  dealers  are  so  little  dependent  on  permanent 
customers  that  character  is  much  less  essential  to  them, 
while  there  is  also  far  less  certainty  of  their  obtaining  the 
character  they  deserve.  The  low  prices  which  a  tradesman 
advertises  are  known  to  a  thousand,  for  one  who  has  dis- 
covered for  himself  or  learned  from  others  that  the  bad 
quality  of  the  goods  is  more  than  an  equivalent  for  their 
cheapness.  —  Mill  :   Chapters  on  Socialism. 

C.  Study  the  following  for  illustrations  of  the  way  description 
is  utilized  as  argument.  The  first  three  paragraphs  of  description 
prove  what?    What  does  the  fourth  paragraph  prove? 

It  once  happened  to  me  to  spend  a  day  or  two  in  a  coun- 
try house  where  the  different  rooms  gave  unconscious  object- 
lessons  to  show  the  gradual  change  of  taste  in  household 
decoration.  One  room  —  the  sitting  room  of  an  elderly 
invalid  —  represented  what  might  be  called  the  iron  age  of 
furnishing ;  everything  was  dark  mahogany  and  haircloth  ; 
there  was  not  a  chair  or  a  sofa  on  which  you  could  retain 
your  seat  without  a  struggle,  so  polished  and  so  slippery 
were  they  all.  The  walls  were  hung  with  dark  portraits  in 
dark  frames,  or  smaller  daguerreotypes  in  circles  of  black 
walnut;  the  only  spots  of  color  were  found  in  one  faded 
sampler,  and  in  the  gilded  circular  frame  of  a  very  small 
mirror  hung  too  high  for  use. 

It  was  curious  to  pass  from  this  sombre  abode  into  the 
bedroom  I  occupied,  which  had  been  fitted  up  by  an  elder 
sister,  long  since  married,  and  whose  girlhood  fell  in  what 
might  be  called  the  glacial  period  of  thirty  years  ago.     Here 


DESCRIPTION    AS    ARGUMENT.  367 

everything  was  white  instead  of  dark  —  white  Parian  statu- 
ettes, white  fluffy  embroideries,  a  white  cross  cut  in  compli- 
cated fashion  out  of  paper,  surrounded  with  white  flowers 
and  hung  in  a  white  frame  against  a  white  wall.  On  the 
mantlepiece  stood  a  pair  of  cut-glass  vases,  bearing  great 
clusters  of  dried  grasses,  bleached  almost  colorless  by  time. 
The  furniture  was  of  straw,  and  the  counterpane  was  of 
white  damask.  If  the  room  of  the  iron  age  was  depressing, 
this  was  even  more  so ;  it  was  like  passing  from  an  under- 
ground cave  into  a  chilly  world  of  ice. 

But  a  third  experience  was  offered  on  proceeding  to  the 
parlor,  which  had  been  given  over  to  the  charge  of  the 
youngest  daughter,  fresh  from  an  art  school.  From  this 
room  every  article  of  pure  white  or  jet  black  had  been  ban- 
ished ;  the  eye  wandered  from  one  half  tint  to  another,  or  if 
any  bit  of  positive  color  arrested  the  gaze,  it  was  some  un- 
expected stroke  of  bold  yellow  or  regal  red.  No  two  chairs 
were  alike ;  nothing  was  paired ;  the  carved  marble  mantel- 
piece was  concealed  by  a  lambrequin;  there  were  screens, 
fans,  a  knot  of  some  Oriental  stuff  at  the  back  of  every 
chair,  three  various  vases  of  bulrushes,  and  seven  seltzer- 
wgrter  jars  painted  by  the  young  lady  herself.  This  room 
did  not  belong  to  the  iron  age,  nor  yet  to  the  glacial,  but  to 
the  recent  or  Japanese  formation.  Considered  as  a  step 
forward  from  the  earlier  stages  represented  in  that  house,  it 
indicated  a  great  advance ;  regarded  as  a  finality,  it  was 
something  to  appall  the  human  heart. 

Now  all  these  successive  transformations  were  the  work 
of  women,  and  they  suggest  the  question,  If  woman  is  thus 
the  born  and  appointed  decorator  of  the  home,  why  should 
she  not  be  trained  to  do  it  artistically  and  professionally  ? 
It  is  not  truly  artistic  to  plunge  at  once  into  the  most  exclu- 
sive extreme  of  the  present  fashion,  whether  it  lead  to  black, 
or  white,  or  a  multiplicity  of  hue,  but  to  take  what  is  truly 


368  ARGUMENTATION. 

the  best  of  each,  period  and  adapt  it  gracefully  to  modern 
use  and  to  the  needs  of  each  separate  family.  In  many 
houses  this  is  now  exquisitely  done:  no  one  can  deny  the" 
great  improvement  in  our  "  interiors  "  within  twenty  years. 
But  if  it  is  to  be  done  systematically  for  the  community,  it 
is  impossible  to  leave  it  wholly  to  amateurs.  The  modern 
decoration  implies  architects,  designers,  and  artificers  of  its 
own.  In  the  foreman  of  an  art-blacksraith*s  shop  I  found 
the  other  day  one  whom  I  had  previously  known  as  a  work- 
ing jeweller;  he  had  simply  transferred  his  energy  and  skill 
from  gold  and  silver  to  brass  and  iron,  and  was  laboring 
with  hands  harder  than  before,  yet  no  less  cunning,  upon 
graceful  gas-fixtures  and  indoor  ornamentations  of  his 
own  designing.  It  must  be  the  same  with  women;  they 
must  undergo  professional  training  to  do  their  best.  Here 
is  this  whole  continent  waiting  to  be  made  graceful  and 
beautiful  in  its  indoor  homes.  It  is  said  by  dealers  that, 
outside  of  a  few  large  cities,  there  is  absolutely  no  arrange- 
ment to  supply  this  demand,  —  no  one  who  can  give  to  a 
young  couple  setting  up  their  housekeeping  more  than  that 
amount  of  information  possessed  by  the  average  furniture 
dealer,  which  is  very  little.  For  want  of  this  many  a  young 
pair,  as  their  wedding-day  approaches,  sit  down  and  ponder 
helplessly  over  some  book  on  "The  House  Beautiful,''  or 
"  Indoor  Decoration,"  until  their  souls  are  filled  with  despair. 
Where  are  they  to  find  these  ohaLvming  portieres,  these  aes- 
thetic wall-papers,  these  delightful  Russian  wash-bowls  that 
are  lighter  and  prettier  and  cheaper  and  more  durable  than 
any  china?  And  the  dealers  receive  unavailing  letters 
from  a  thousand  miles  away,  asking  for  the  wrong  things  or 
under  the  wrong  names,  and  ending  in  failure.  '  What  is  the 
remedy  ? 

The  remedy  is  for  a  few  women  first,  and  then  a  good 
many  women,  after  training  themselves  properly,  to  take  up 


NARRATIVE  AS  ARGUMENT.  369 

decoration  as  a  profession.  Let  any  two  bright  and  capaHe 
girls  who  have  wearied  themselves  in  painting  water-colors 
that  people  do  not  want,  or  Christmas  cards  for  which  the 
market  is  waning,  try  another  experiment.  Let  them,  after 
studying  in  the  art  schools  of  New  York  or  Boston  or  Cin- 
cinnati, make  also  a  careful  study  of  the  markets  and  work- 
shops of  those  cities,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  decoration  ;  and 
then  go,  armed  with  circulars,  price-lists,  plans,  and  patterns, 
to  establish  themselves  as  household  decorators  in  some  in- 
terior city,  where  the  wave  of  modern  improvement  has  thus 
far  come  only  as  a  matter  of  intelligent  interest,  not  of  sys- 
tematic supply.  They  will  have  to  wait  awhile,  no  doubt, 
to  command  public  confidence,  or  even  to  make  their  mission 
understood ;  but  they  will  not  have  to  wait  so  long  as  their 
brothers  will  wait  for  clients  or  for  patients.  They  will 
need  to  be  very  practical,  very  accurate,  very  efficient,  and 
very  patient.  The  great  dealers  in  the  larger  cities  will 
gladly  make  them  their  agents,  give  them  letters  of  intro- 
duction, and  pay  them  a  commission  on  sales.  With  a  little 
tact  they  can  learn  to  cooperate  with  the  local  dealers,  to 
whom  they  will  naturally  leave  the  coarser  supplies,  devoting 
themselves  to  the  finer  touches.  If  they  succeed  at  all,  their 
circle  of  clients  or  correspondents  may  extend  through  whole 
states,  and  they  will  help  to  refine  the  life  and  thought  of 
the  nation.  By  all  means  let  us  see  women  take  up  house- 
hold decoration  as  an  educated  profession.  —  T.  W.  Higgin- 
SON :  Women  as  Household  Decorators,  from  Women  and  Men, 
by  permission.     Copyright,  1887,  by  Harper  and  Brothers. 

D.  How  could  the  following  narrative  be  utilized  as  an  argu- 
ment? Make  a  proposition  that  it  would  fitly  illustrate  and  help 
to  prove.     What  part  is  refutation  ? 

I  was  once  met  by  a  little  girl  on  a  cross-street  in  a  re- 
spectable quarter  of  the  town,  who  burst  into  tears  at  sight 


370  ARGUMENTATION. 

of  me,  and  asked  for  money  to  buy  her  sick  mother  bread. 
The  very  next  day  I  was  passing  through  the  same  street, 
and  I  saw  the  same  little  girl  burst  into  tears  at  sight  of  a 
benevolent-looking  lady,  whom  undoubtedly  she  asked  for 
money  for  the  same  good  object.  The  benevolent-looking 
lady  gave  her  nothing,  and  she  tried  her  woes  upon  several 
other  people,  none  of  whom  gave  her  anything.  I  was 
forced  to  doubt  whether,  upon  the  whole,  her  game  was 
worth  the  candle,  or  whether  she  was  really  making  a  pro- 
vision for  her  declining  years  by  this  means.  To  be  sure, 
her  time  was  not  worth  much,  and  she  could  hardly  have 
got  any  other  work,  she  was  so  young ;  but  it  seemed  hardly 
a  paying  industry.  By  any  careful  calculation,  I  do  not  be- 
lieve she  would  have  been  found  to  have  amassed  more  than 
ten  or  fifteen  cents  a  day;  and  perhaps  she  really  had  a  sick 
mother  at  home.  Many  persons  are  obliged  to  force  their 
emotions  for  money,  whom  we  should  not  account  wholly 
undeserving ;  yet  I  suppose  a  really  good  citizen  who  found 
this  little  girl  trying  to  cultivate  the  sympathies  of  charitable 
people  by  that  system  of  irrigation,  would  have  had  her  sup- 
pressed as  an  impostor. 

In  a  way  she  was  an  impostor,  though  her  sick  mother 
may  have  been  starving,  as  she  said.  It  is  a  nice  question. 
Shall  we  always  give  to  him  that  asketh  ?  Or  shall  we  give 
to  him  that  asketh  only  when  we  know  that  he  has  come  by 
his  destitution  honestly  ?  In  other  words,  what  is  a  deserv- 
ing case  of  charity  —  or,  rather,  what  is  not  ?  Is  a  starving 
or  freezing  person  to  be  denied  because  he  or  she  is  drunken 
or  vicious  ?  What  is  desert  in  the  poor  ?  What  is  desert  in 
the  rich,  I  suppose  the  reader  would  answer.  If  this  is  so, 
and  if  we  ought  not  to  succor  an  undeserving  poor  person, 
then  we  ought  not  to  succor  an  undeserving  rich  person.  It 
will  be  said  that  a  rich  person,  however  undeserving,  will 
never  be  in  need  of  our  succor,  but  this  is  not  so  clear.     If 


THE  PROPOSITION,  371 

we  saw  a  rich  person  fall  in  a  fit  before  the  horses  of  a  Fifth 
Avenue  omnibus,  ought  not  we  to  run  and  lift  him  up,  al- 
though we  knew  him  to  be  a  man  whose  life  was  stained  by 
every  vice  and  excess,  and  cruel,  wanton,  idle,  luxurious  ? 
—  W.  D.  HowELLS :  Harper's,  Dec,  1896. 

The  Proposition. 

129.  That  his  hearers  may  know  precisely  what  they 
are  expected  to  believe  or  to  do,  the  maker  of  an  argu- 
ment must  express  his  theme  in  the  form  of  a  definite  propo- 
sition,—  that  is,  ill  a  complete  sentence  wdth  a  subject  and 
a  predicate.  In  no  other  form  of  discourse  is  a  proposi- 
tion an  absolute  necessity;  in  argumentation  it  is.  You 
can  write  a  description  of  "  Our  Football  Team  "  ;  you 
can  write  a  narrative  of  "Our  Football  Team";  but 
you  cannot  argue  "Our  Football  Team."  There  must 
be  something  asserted  of  it;  that  is,  there  must  be  a 
proposition,  before  argument  can  begin.  Thus  you  can 
argue  for  or  against  the  proposition  that  "Our  football 
team  is  the  best  in  the  state."  You  can  write  an  expo- 
sition of  "Strikes,"  but  you  cannot  argue  "Strikes." 
You  must  make  a  proposition  including  the  term, 
"  Strikes,"  before  argument  can  begin  ;  thus,  "  Strikes 
cannot  succeed  unless  supported  by  public  opinion,"  or 
"  Strikes  should  be  supplanted  by  Compulsory  Arbitra- 
tion," or  any  one  of  a  thousand  other  assertions  about 
strikes.  Sometimes,  it  is  true,  we  speak  of  a  phrase 
like  "Votes  for  Women  "  as  if  it  could  be  argued;  but 
it  cannot  be  argued  unless  it  is  turned  into  a  proposi- 
tion,—  "Women  should  be  granted  the  right  to  vote," 
or  is  understood,  by  all  concerned,  to  be  equivalent  to 
that  proposition.     The  same  thing  is  true  of  a  subject 


372  ARG  UMENTA  TION, 

for  argument  that  is  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  ques- 
tion. "  Shall  women  be  granted  the  right  to  vote  ?  " 
must  be  understood  to  mean  one  or  the  other  of  these 
propositions,  —  "Women  should  be  granted  the  right 
to  vote  "  or  "  Women  should  not  be  granted  the  right 
to  vote." 

The  proposition  should  be  the  clear  and  exact  state- 
ment of  the  conclusion  which  the  writer  or  speaker  has 
reached  in  his  own  thinking,  and  to  which  he  hopes  to 
bring  his  audience  by  means  of  his  arguments.  In 
formal  debate  the  situation  requires  that  the  exact 
proposition  be  made  known  beforehand,  and  that  the 
precise  meaning  of  the  terms  of  the  proposition,  what  it 
includes  and  what  it  does  not  include,  be  agreed  to  by 
both  sides  and  explained  at  the  outset.  In  less  formal 
argumentation  this  is  not  usually  deemed  necessary. 

Nor  is  it  always  advisable ;  for  if  the  audience  is 
thought  to  be  hostile  to  the  speaker's  views,  the  full 
statement  of  the  proposition  may  best  be  deferred  until 
his  hearers  have  been  prepared  to  receive  it.  Thus,  in 
Burke's  speech  on  Conciliation  with  the  Colonies,  you 
are  made  aware  in  the  very  first  paragraph  that  Burke 
desires  to  conciliate  the  colonies  somehow;  in  the  ninth 
paragraph  you  learn  that  Burke's  proposition  is  peace ; 
that  he  proposes,  by  a  simple  plan,  somehow  to  remove 
the  ground  of  the  difference  betweeh  the  colonies  and 
the  mother  country ;  but  it  is  not  until  the  ninety-first 
paragraph  that  he  lets  his  audience  know  precisely  what 
he  proposes:  namely,  that  Parliament  should  establish, 
by  passing  certain  resolutions,  the  principle  of  raising 
money  in  the  colonies  by  voluntary  grants  of  the  colo- 
nial assemblies  rather  than  by  imposing  taxes.     Burke 


ASSIGNMENTS   ON   THE  PROPOSITION.  373 

knew  his  audience  to  be  out  of  sympathy  with  his  propo- 
sition, and  so  he  deferred  its  full  and  exact  statement 
until  he  was  ready  to  present  his  resolutions.  For 
similar  reasons,  doubtless,  Hosmer  in  his  Samuel 
Adams  (see  p.  46,  ante^  for  the  paragraph  in  question) 
delayed  announcing  the  full  statement  of  his  propo- 
sition until  the  very  end  of  the  paragraph  had  been 
reached.  By  this  delay  he  was  able  to  forestall  opposi- 
tion that  would  inevitably  have  been  offered  had  the 
proposition  been  stated  boldly  at  the  outset. 

Whether  the  proposition  is  stated  at  the  beginning  or  is  reserved 
until  necessary  explanations  have  been  made,  it  is  kept  definitely 
in  mind  by  the  writer  all  of  the  time.  He  knows  exactly  what  it 
is  before  he  begins  to  write  and  holds  it  before  him  while  writing. 

ISO.         Assignments  on  the  Proposition. 

A.  Read  the  following  and  write  out  the  exact  proposition  that 
was  in  the  father's  mind  oa  the  subject  of  shooting  birds. 

He  went  hunting  the  very  next  Saturday,  and  at  the  first 
shot  he  killed  a  bird.  It  was  a  suicidal  sapsucker,  which 
had  suffered  him  to  steal  upon  it  so  close  that  it  could  not 
escape  even  the  vagaries  of  that  wandering  gun-barrel,  and 
was  blown  into  such  small  pieces  that  the  boy  could  bring 
only  a  few  feathers  of  it  away.  In  the  evening,  when  his 
father  came  home,  he  showed  him  these  trophies  of  the 
chase,  and  boasted  of  his  exploit  with  the  minutest  detail. 
His  father  asked  him  whether  he  had  expected  to  eat  the 
sapsucker,  if  he  could  have  got  enough  of  it  together.  He 
said  no,  sapsuckers  were  not  good  to  eat.  '^  Then  you  took 
its  poor  little  life  merely  for  the  pleasure  of  killing  it  ?  " 
—  HowELLS  :  A  Boy^s  Town,  p.  154. 

•  B.   Is  the  first  sentence,  or  the  last,  or  a  combination  of  the 
two,  the  exact  proposition  in  the  following? 


374  ARGUMENTATION. 

When  men  strike,  the  side  which  can  afford  to  be  idle 
the  longest  will  win.  The  masters  are  usually  rich  enough 
to  live  on  their  accumulated  property  for  some  time.  The 
men  often  have  no  savings,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  have  large 
ones.  They  may  belong  to  a  trade-union  which  will  supply 
them  with,  means  of  subsistence  for  some  time,  but  the 
small  funds  of  such  a  society,  divided  among  a  number  of 
men,  cannot  go  far.  The  masters  must  have  the  men  work 
in  order  to  have  their  capital  yield  them  anything,  but  the 
men  must  work  in  order  to  live.  It  is  plain  that  the  mas- 
ters can,  as  a  rule,  stay  idle  the  longest. 

—  Lalor  and  Mason  :  A  Primer  of  Political  Economy. 

C.  Criticise  the  wording  of  the  following  propositions.  The 
words  that  are  ambiguous  or  in  need  of  definition  or  modification 
are  printed  in  italics.  From  one  of  these  make  a  proposition  that 
you  would  be  willing  to  advocate. 

1.  United  States  senators  should  be  elected  by  the  people.  (On 
a  general  ticket  ?    Ignoring  state  lines  ?) 

2.  The  elective  system  should  be  adopted  in  our  schools.  (In  all 
of  them?    Define  elective  system.) 

3.  Sunday  recreations  should  be  prohibited  by  law.  (What  is 
included  in  recreations  ?) 

4.  All  anarchists  should  be  deported.     (What  is  an  anarchist  f) 

5.  A  high  school  education  insures  success  in  life.  (Is  a  liigh 
school  education  the  same  for  everybody?  What  is  success  in 
life?) 

6.  A  trade  is  better  than  a  clerkship.  (For  whom?  in  what 
sense  ?) 

7.  The  policy  of  Conservation  should  be  supported  by  legisla- 
tion. (What  is  Conservation?  W^hat  legislation  is  wanted? 
state  or  federal  ?) 

D.  Make  a  proposition  that  precisely  expresses  some  conclusion 
to  which  you  have  come.  Word  it  with  extreme  care  with  a  view 
to  clearness  and  accuracy.  Bring  it  to  class  for  criticism  of  ^^s 
form. 


ASSIGNMENT  IN  FINDING   PERTINENT  FACTS.      375 

E.  Think  of  a  proposition  that  would  be  unwelcome  to  your 
classmates,  —  something  about  restricting  a  certain  privilege,  for 
instance,  or  curtailing  a  holiday  recess,  —  and  consider  what  you 
might  say  before  announcing  the  proposition,  in  otder  to  render  it 
less  unwelcome  when  announced. 

Arguments  for  the  Proposition  based  on  Pertinent 

Facts. 

131.  Whatever  helps  to  persuade  others  to  accept  a 
proposition  as  true  is  an  argument  for  the  proposition,  a 
reason  for  believing  it.  The  fact  that  ^  is  a  financier 
long  accustomed  to  the  safe  management  of  large  funds, 
is  an  argument  for  the  proposition  that  "  A  should  be 
elected  city  treasurer."  The  absence  of  any  accusation 
affecting  A's  integrity  or  ability  to  perform  the  duties 
of  the  office,  is  a  further  argument  for  the  same  proposi- 
tion. As  an  argument  for  the  proposition  that "  revenue 
by  voluntary  grant  of  the  colonial  legislatures  is  the 
most  productive  means  of  obtaining  money  from  the 
colonies,"  Burke  cited  the  fact  that  the  colonies  had 
granted  voluntarily  more  than  £200,000  sterling  for 
his  Majesty's  service.  As  a  further  argument  for  the 
same  proposition,  he  pointed  to  the  absence  of  revenue 
from  the  system  of  imposing  taxes  on  the  colonies. 

A  pertinent  fact  and  the  absence  of  a  pertinent  fact  are  alike 
arguments  for  a  proposition. 

132.  Assignmeut  in  finding  Pertinent  Pacts. 

Find  two  or  three  pertinent  facts  that  tend  to  prove  the  affirma- 
tive or  the  negative  of  the  following  propositions.  Make  at  least 
one  additional  argument  from  the  absence  of  a  pertinent  fact. 

1.  The  interurban  railways  hurt  retail  business  in  small  villages 
near  larger  cities. 


376  ARGUMENTATION. 

2.  Smith  should  be  made  captain  of  the  baseball  nine. 

3.  Jones  should  be  elected  secretary  of  the  literary  society. 

4.  Final  examinations  should  be  required  of  every  student  in 
every  study. 

5.  Basket-ball  aifords  better  exercise  for  a  girl  than  ice-skating. 

Arguraents  based  on  Pertinent  Circumstances. 

133.  The  mayor  of  a  city,  a  candidate  for  reelection, 
was  accused  of  unfriendliness  to  the  working  classes 
because  he  had  vetoed  an  appropriation  for  free  band 
concerts.  As  an  argument  that  the  accusation  was  false, 
the  absence  of  any  motive  for  unfriendliness  was  urged, 
and  the  circumstance  was  pointed  out  that  there  was  no 
money  left  in  the  city  treasury  to  meet  that  or  any  other 
appropriation.  The  very  circumstance  that  he  had  ve- 
toed the  measure  when  a  candidate  for  reelection  was 
cited  as  an  argument  for  his  good  faith.  A  certain 
house  with  windows  and  doors  secure  has  been  robbed. 
After  the  robbery,  the  lock  on  one  window  is  found  to 
have  been  broken.  This  circumstance  is  an  argument 
that  the  robbery  was  probably  committed  by  some  one 
from  without.  If  there  is  no  sign  that  the  windows 
and  doors  have  been  tampered  with,  this  circumstance 
is  an  argument  that  the  robbery  was  committed  by,  or 
in  collusion  with,  an  inmate  of  the  house. 

A  mere  circumstance,  if  pertinent  to  the  proposition,  and  the 
absence  of  a  circumstance  are  alike  arguments. 

134-  Assignment  in  finding  Pertinent  Circumstances. 

For  one  of  the  following  propositions  (or  the  negative  of  it)  find 
several  pertinent  circumstances.  Note  also  the  absence  of  any  cir- 
cumstance that  would  be  significant  if  present.  (Take  a  real  case 
for  each  proposition.)  ^ 


SPECIFIC  INSTANCES.  377 

1.  Fear  of  occupying  room  13  in  a  hotel  is  foolish. 

2.  Belief  in  your  luck  is  rational. 

3.  The  fire  was  of  incendiary  origin. 

4.  The  burglar  entered  by  climbing  the  porch. 

5.  The  ring  was  lost  between  home  and  school. 

6.  The  child  is  lost,  not  kidnapped. 

7.  The  book  has  been  mislaid  ;  it  is  not  stolen. 

8.  That  piece  of  goods  wears  unusually  well. 

9.  She  is  offended  about  something  I  have  done. 
10.  The  candidate  was  not  sincere  in  his  motives. 

Arguments  based  on  Specific  Instances. 

135.  Burke  in  the  conciliation  speech  offered,  as  an 
argument  that  concession  was  in  accordance  with  Eng- 
lish policy,  four  historical  instances  or  examples,  —  the 
cases  of  Ireland,  Wales,  Chester,  and  Durham,  —  show- 
ing that  these  had  been  pacified  by  giving  them  full 
English  privileges  and  rights.  Also  against  Lord  North's 
plan  of  conciliation,  Burke  urged  that  it  was  "  without 
example  of  our  ancestors."  Thus,  he  virtually  made  an 
argument  out  of  Lord  North's  inability  to  produce  from 
English  history  any  example  or  instance. 

Specific  instances,  if  pertinent,  are  arguments  for  a  proposition  ; 
and  the  absence  of  a  specific  instance  is  also  an  argument,  count- 
ing against  a  proposition  needing  such  support. 

Assignment  in  finding  Specific  Instances. 

136.  For  one  of  the  first  five  of  the  following  propositions  (or  the 
negative  of  it)  find  at  least  one  specific  instance.  Show  how  the 
absence  of  a  specific  instance  could  be  used  as  an  argument  against 
any  one  of  the  last  five  propositions. 

1.  The  honor  system  in  examinations  should  be  adopted. 

2.  Cities  should  own  their  lighting  plants. 


378  ARGUMENTATION. 

3.  Generosity  in  diplomacy  is  the  truest  wisdom. 

4.  Patience,  perseverance,  and  skill  will  teach  an  animal  any- 
thing. 

5.  Gratitude  is  thankfulness  for  favors  expected. 

6.  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  should  be  united  in  one  state. 

7.  The  ballot  should  be  taken  away  from  ignorant  voters. 

8.  Banks  should  be  allowed  to  issue  circulation  without  limit. 

9.  The  government  should  provide  work  for  everybody. 
10.   All  punishments  for  crime  should  be  abolished. 

Arguments  based  on  Principles,  Experiences, 
Authority. 

137.  In  favor  of  the  simplicity  of  his  schetiae  for  concil- 
iating the  colonies,  Burke  used  as  arguments  the  follow- 
ing principles  and  maxims  :  "  Refined  policy  ever  has 
been  the  parent  of  confusion  ;  and  ever  will  be  so,  as  long 
as  the  world  endures.  Plain,  good  intention,  which 
is  as  easily  discovered  at  the  first  view  as  fraud  is 
surely  detected  at  last,  is,  let  me  say,  of  no  mean  force 
in  the  government  of  mankind.  Genuine  simplicity 
of  heart  is  an  healing  and  cementing  principle."  In 
another  part  of  his  speech,  Burke  pointed  out  the 
absence  of  any  intelligible  principle  in  Lord  North's 
plan  for  dealing  with  the  colonies,  as  an  argument 
against  it.  "  It  is,"  he  said,  "  a  mere  project.  It  is  a 
thing  new  ;  unheard  of ;  supported  by  no  experience  ; 
justified  by  no  analogy  ;  without  example  of  our  ances- 
tors, or  root  in  the  constitution.  It  is  neither  regular 
parliamentary  taxation  nor  colony  grant." 

A  principle,  a  maxim,  an  appeal  to  experience  or  to  authority, 
is  an  argument  for  a  proposition,  if  pertinent  to  it ;  and  so  is  the 
absence  of  any  one  of  these,  if  the  absence  is  significant. 


GENERAL    THEORY.  379 

138.   Assignment  in  finding  Principles. 

Supply  a  principle,  an  appeal  to  common  experience,  an 
appeal  to  authority,  in  favor  of  or  against  one  of  the  following. 
If  you  cannot,  show  how  that  fact  itself  may  be  used  as  an 
argument. 

1.  This  school  should  have  a  better  ventilating  system. 

2.  The  Australian  ballot  system  should  be  adopted  everywhere. 

3.  No  student  should  be  allowed  to  carry  five  studies  at  a  time. 

4.  The  curfew  ordinance  should  be  enforced. 

5.  Thanksgiving  Day  football  should  be  prohibited. 

6.  Pupils  should  be  allowed  to  study  together. 

7.  Girls  should  have  a  different  course  of  studies  from  that 
prescribed  for  boys. 

8.  Fishing  in  a  swimming-hole  will  not  bring  a  catch. 

9.  Pupils  should  occupy  alternate  seats  in  an  examination. 
10.    The  government  should  own  and  operate  a  public  telegraph 

system  in  connection  with  the  post-office. 

Arguments  based  on  a  General  Theory. 

139.  Back  of  every  proposition  there  will  be  found 
certain  theories  that  will  influence,  or  even  determine,  a 
person's  attitude  toward  the  proposition  as  soon  as  the 
cheories  are  recognized,  and  will  lead  him  to  find  reasons 
for  or  against  it.  If  the  proposition  is, " -A  should  be  gradu- 
ated, though  he  has  never  studied  algebra,"  those  who 
favor  and  those  who  oppose  his  graduation  will  betray 
very  quickly  conflicting  theories  of  education.  If  the 
proposition  is,  ''  This  shade  tree  should  be  cut  down  in 
order  to  widen  the  street,"  we  soon  discover,  from  what 
people  say  for  or  against  the  proposition,  that  there  are 
many  theories  of  "  improvement,"  '-^  progress,"  and  the 


380  ARGUMENTATION, 

like,  on  the  one  hand,  and  conflicting  theories  of  "  beau- 
tifying the  city,"  "  preserving  old  landmarks,"  "  the  du- 
ties of  city  ofiicers,"  on  the  other.  What  a  person  thinks 
about  the  proposition,  *'  Cities  should  own  and  operate 
street  railways,"  may  be  determined  by  a  theory  of 
government,  or  by  some  theory  of  taxation  or  of  labor. 
The  proposition,  "  Sunday  baseball  should  be  pro- 
hibited," involves  theories  of  personal,  as  well  as  pub- 
lic rights  and  morals,  and  of  the  state's  relation  thereto. 
A  person  may  be  fully  cognizant  of  the  theory  under- 
lying the  proposition,  and  may  present  it  openly  ;  or  he 
may  be  only  vaguely  conscious  of  it,  and,  assuming  it 
to  be  true,  may  make  appeals  to  it  as  if  it  were  accepted 
by  all  as  an  axiom.  In  either  case  the  theory  is  pres- 
ent, and  is  used  as  an  argument  for  the  proposition. 
It  is  important,  therefore,  in  studying  a  proposition,  to 
penetrate  beneath  the  surface  to  the  various  conflicting 
theories  that  underlie  it.  One  way  of  doing  this  is  to 
ask  the  question.  On  what  theory  or  theories  could  this 
proposition  be  attacked  and  defended?  or,  if  it  be  a 
proposition  that  has  long  been  discussed.  On  what 
theory  or  theories  has  it  been  attacked  and  defended  ? 
How  did  the  proposition  come  to  be  discussed  ?  What 
was  the  origin  of  the  controversy  ?  What  must  be  as- 
sumed to  be  true  in  order  that  the  proposition  may  be 
fairly  regarded  as  debatable  ?  If  any  one  of  these  ques- 
tions can  be  answered  by  reading  and  thinking,  one  or 
more  underlying  theories  will  be  discovered  with  which 
the  proposition  will  square. 

A  general  theory  with  which  the  proposition  agrees,  if  ac- 
cepted as  true  or  proved  true,  is  an  argument  in  favor  of  the 
proposition. 


FACT  AND  INFERENCE,  381 

140.  Assignment  in  supplying  a  General  Theory. 

What  theory  is  back  of  each  of  the  following  propositions? 

1.  The  city  council  should  appropriate  money  for  free   band 
concerts. 

2.  The  school  should  provide  free  noon-lunches. 

3.  The  playing  of  pianos  at  midnight  should  be  prohibited  by 
ordinance. 

4.  A  boy  should  be  excused  from  any  study  on  request  of  his 
parent. 

5.  Newspapers  should  not  be  permitted  to  print  criminal  news. 

6.  Novels  should  be  censored  for  literary  form. 

7..  Women  should  be  allowed  to  vote  on  the  same  terms  as  men. 

How  a  Fact  or  a  Theory  becomes  an  Argument. 

141.  Every  argument,  of  whatever  kind,  involves  an 
element  of  fact  and  an  element  of  theory.  A  fact  is 
adduced  because  it  is  supposed  to  have  a  certain  mean- 
ing ;  that  is,  because  a  certain  inference  may  be  drawn 
from  it.  A  theory  is  adduced  because  it  explains  or 
gives  meaning  and  sanction  to  certain  facts  of  the  case. 
Thus,  the  fact  that  ^  is  a  financier  long  accustomed  to 
the  safe  management  of  large  funds,  when  used  as  an 
argument  for  electing  A  city  treasurer,  involves  the 
theory  that  "  all  men  who  have  been  accustomed  to  the 
safe  management  of  large  funds  make  good  city 
treasurers."  The  theory  that  "the  state  should  prevent 
people  from  interfering  with  one  another's  rights,"  when 
used  as  an  argument  for  the  proposition,  "  Sunday  base- 
ball should  be  prohibited,"  raises  a  question  of  fact : 
"  Does  Sunday  baseball  interfere  with  the  rights  of 
certain  classes  of  people  ?  " 

A  fact  or  a  theory  becomes  an  argument  because  an  inference 
is  drawn  from  it,  or  an  application  is  made  of  it. 


382  ARGUMENTATION, 


142.  Assignments  in  relating  Pacts  and  Theories  to 
Propositions. 

A.  In  each  of  the  following  (1)  Discover  the  proposition,  (2) 
Note  the  arguments,  whether  of  fact  or  of  theory,  that  support  the 
proposition. 

1.  Many  politicians  of  our  time  are  in  the  habit  of  laying 
it  down  as  a  self-evident  proposition,  that  no  people  ought 
to  be  free  till  they  are  fit  to  use  their  freedom.  The  maxim 
is  worthy  of  the  fool  in  the  old  story,  who  resolved  not  to 
go  into  the  water  till  he  had  learned  to  swim.  If  men  are  to 
wait  for  liberty  till  they  become  wise  and  good  in  slavery, 
they  may  indeed  wait  forever.  —  Macaulay  :  Milton. 

2.  It  may  not  seem  that  the  few  minutes  which  are  given 
each  day  to  physical  culture  in  our  schools  will  affect  mate- 
rially, for  better  or  worse,  the  character  and  bearing  of  the 
children  who  are  subjected  to  it ;  but  when  it  is  remembered 
that  this  sort  of  thing  goes  on  day  after  day  for  eight  or 
nine  years,  its  influence  will  be  more  readily  appreciated, 
and  its  hygienic  importance  more  fully  realized.  If  the 
present  mental  strain  is  to  continue  in  our  schools,  then  we 
must  strive  to  overcome  the  nervousness  which  it  induces 
through  the  efficient  culture  of  the  body.  We  must  not 
have  as  our  ideal  of  the  work  of  physical  training  the  de- 
velopment of  great  muscular  strength  and  dexterity,  so 
much  as  the  promotion  of  health,  and  rendering  the  body 
an  unconscious  and  ready  instrument  of  the  mind  in  the 
expression  of  its  most  gracious  qualities.  Nor  can  we 
hope,  under  the  conditions  which  exist  in  our  schools,  to 
make  the  bodies  of  all  our  children  symmetrical  and  har- 
monious by  physical  training ;  for  we  have  to  deal  there 
with  children  in  the  great  average,  and  it  is  only  by  dealing 
with  individual  tendencies  that  we  can  secure  perfect  sym- 


RELATING  FACTS  AND   THEORIES.  383 

metry  and  harmony.  But  after  all,  this  is  not  such  a  serious 
question :  for  if  we  can  foster  and  promote  the  health  of 
children,  and  induce  in  them  the  right  attitude  of  spirit,  the 
tendency  of  nature  toward  symmetry  and  harmony  will 
produce  gratifying  results.  —  School  Review,  May,  1905. 

3.  I  remember  hearing  an  old  gentleman  (who  repre- 
sented old  English  feeling  in  great  perfection)  say  that  it 
was  totally  unintelligible  to  him  that  a  certain  member  of 
Parliament  could  sit  on  the  liberal  side  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  "  I  cannot  understand  it,"  he  said ;  "  I  knew  his 
father  intimately,  and  he  was  always  a  good  Tory." 

—  Bagehot  :    The  English  Constitution. 

4.  The  very  mode  in  which  a  crowd  is  formed  is  highly 
favorable  to  its  hypnotization,  and  hence  to  its  becoming  a 
mob.  At  first  a  crowd  is  formed  by  some  strange  object  or 
occurrence  suddenly  arresting  the  attention  of  men.  Other 
men  coming  up  are  attracted  by  curiosity :  they  wish  to 
learn  the  reason  of  the  gathering;  they  fix  their  attention 
on  the  object  that  fascinates  the  crowd,  are  fascinated  in 
their  turn,  and  thus  the  crowd  keeps  on  growing.  With 
the  increase  of  numbers  grows  the  strength  of  fascination ; 
the  hypnotization  increases  in  intensity,  until,  when  a  cer- 
tain critical  point  is  reached,  the  crowd  becomes  completely 
hypnotized,  and  is  ready  to  obey  blindly  the  commands  of 
its  hero;  it  is  now  a  mob.  Thus  a  mob  is  a  hypnotized 
crowd.  — Atlantic,  75  :  190. 

B.  Study  the  two  briefs  that  follow.  In  the  first,  what  theory 
of  legislation  is  appealed  to  by  argument  A  ?  On  what  theory 
would  Chave  to  be  defended?  What  theory  is  appealed  to  in  D 
and  2)  I?  in  jEJ?  In  the  second  brief  what  theory  of  an  ideal  im- 
migration law  underlies  A,  B,  and  C?  Are  the  theories  of  the 
first  brief  in  conflict  with  those  of  the  second  ? 


384  ARGUMENTATION. 

A  high  restrictive  tax  should  be  placed  upon  all  immigrants 
to  the  United  States.     Because 

A.  It  is  an  appropriate  remedy.     For 

I.    The  evil  is  an  industrial  one. 

B.  It  would  sift  the  immigrants. 

C.  It  would  abolish  transients. 

D.  It  would  be  just  to  the  immigrant.     For 

I.   If  he  is  to  share  the  benefits  of  government, 
he  should  contribute  to  its  cost. 

E.  It  would  greatly  benefit  American  laborers.     For 

I.    It  would  prevent  competition  of  low-grade 
labor. 

Proposition  :  A  high  tax  should  not  be  levied  on  immigrants 
to  the  United  States.     Because 

A.  A  high  tax  would  not  exclude  undesirable  immi- 

grants as  does  the  present  law.     For 
I.    Those  liable  to  become  a  public  charge  are 
now  prohibited,  but  might  be  brought  in 
under  a  tax  law. 
II.   A  tax  law  would  not  exclude  felons  or  persons 
who  have  been  convicted  of  other  infa- 
mous crimes. 
III.   A  tax  law  would  not  exclude  contract  laborers. 
For 
a.   The    contractor   could   easily   advance 
wages  to  pay  the  tax. 

B.  A  high  tax  will  exclude  large  numbers  of  desirable 

immigrants.     For 
I.   The  average  immigrant  has  hardly  $25  on 
landing  in  America. 


RELATING  FACTS  AND   THEORIES.  385 

II.    Refutation.     The  claim  that  the  demand  for 
labor   in   this   country   is    already  over- 
supplied,  cannot  stand.     For 
a.    There  is  a  constant  demand  for  laborers 
in  the  coarser  occupations,  such  as 
digging   canals  and   repairing   rail- 
roads. 
h     There  is  a  dearth  of  house  servants. 

c.  This  country  can  support  ten  times  its 

present  population. 

d.  Every  laborer  is  a  consumer  as  well  as  a 

producer. 

III.    Refutatioyi,     The  claim  that   the   immigrant 
is  a  menace  to  our  free  institutions  is  not 
supported  by  the  facts.     For 
a.   The   boss,  the   boodler,  the  tax-evader, 
the    corruptionist,    the    monopolist, 
is  usually  a  native  American. 
h.   The  states  having  the  largest  percentage 
of  foreign-born  voters  are  the  most 
progressive  states  in  the  union. 

C.  The  proposed  tax  has  nothing  to  commend  it  as  a 
test  of  the  qualifications  of  good  citizenship. 
For 

'  I.  The  poor  frequently  become  the  most  useful 
citizens. 

II.  A  bill  making  the  ability  to  read  a  test  for 
the  admission  of  immigrants  was  vetoed 
by  the  President  on  the  grounds  of  its 
not  being  an  adequate  test,  yet  it  has 
more  to  commend  it  than  a  tax  on  immi- 
grants. 


386  ARGUMENTATION. 


143.  Assignments  on  Arguments  for  the  Proposition. 

A.  What  considerations  probably  led  to  the  first  discussion  of 
the  proposition,  "  Monday  is  better  than  Saturday  for  the  weekly 
school  holiday  "  ? 

B.  Would  a  knowledge  of  how  and  when  the  question  origi- 
nated help  to  an  understanding  of  these  propositions? — "Lord 
Bacon  wrote  the  plays  attributed  to  Shakespeare  " ;  "  The  Boer 
Republic  ought  to  have  been  given  its  independence  by  Eng- 
land"; "The  Panama  interoceanic  canal  should  be  completed"; 
"  The  United  States  should  hold  the  Philippine  Islands  perma- 
nently as  colonies." 

C.  Find  in  the  Merchant  of  Venice  at  least  one  argument  in 
favor  of  one  of  the  following  propositions ;  also  evidence  against 
the  others  that  conflict  with  it.     Write  the  argument. 

1.  Shakespeare  shared  the  prejudice  of  his  age  against  the  Jews. 

2.  Shakespeare  meant  by  this  play  merely  to  show  the  terrible 
injustice  which  the  Jews  suffered  in  his  day. 

3.  Shakespeare  wanted  his  audience  to  understand  that  the  worst 
features  of  the  Jewish  character  were  a  natural  retribution  upon 
Christians  for  the  centuries  of  wrong  they  had  heaped  upon  the 
Jewish  race. 

4.  The  deepest  lesson  of  the  play  is  found  in  the  moral  insensi- 
bility of  all  the  characters,  including  Portia,  to  the  wrong  done 
Shylock. 

5.  Shakespeare  wanted  his  audience  to  sympathize  with  Shy- 
lock. 

D.  Find  facts  and  circumstances  counting  for  or  against  one  of 
the  following  propositions  and  write  the  argument :  — 

1.  Shakespeare  intended  to  belittle  Caesar's  character  in  order 
to  exalt  Brutus's. 

2.  In  the  quarrel  between  Brutus  and  Cassius  the  latter  was 
right. 

3.  Mark  Antony's  speech  was  more  eifective  than  Brutus's. 


TESTS  FOR  PERTINENCE.  387 

4.  Brutus  was  persuaded  on  insufficient  evidence  to  join  the  con- 
spiracy. 

5.  Brutus's  motive  in  entering  into  the  conspiracy  was  more 
commendable  than  that  of  Cassius. 

E.  What  specific  instances  can  you  adduce  in  favor  of  the  propo- 
sition that  "  Wealthy  men  are  to-day  sensible  of  their  obligations 
to  the  public,"  or  that  "A  student  who  excels  in  mathematics  will 
excel  in  physics,"  or  that  "  The  inaccuracy  of  newspapers  is  excus- 
able."    Write  on  one  of  the  foregoing  propositions. 

F.  What  question  of  fact  or  of  theory  is  implied  in  the  follow- 
ing ?- 

1.  Women  should  be  given  the  right  to  vote  because  they  will 
purify  politics. 

2.  Women  should  not  be  given  the  right  to  vote  because  they 
do  not  want  it. 

3.  Portia  was  merciful  because  she  delivered  that  fine  speech 
beginning,  "  The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strained." 

4.  Portia  was  not  merciful  because  she  showed  no  mercy  for 
Shylock  after  his  sentence  had  been  pronounced. 

G.  Find  three  arguments  in  favor  of  one  of  the  following  propo- 
sitions. Which  one  of  the  three  do  you  regard  as  indispensable  V 
Write  the  arguments,  putting  the  strongest  last. 

1.  Cooking  and  sewing  should  be  taught  in  the  public  schools. 

2.  Examinations  are  a  true  test  of  scholarship. 

3.  The  education  of  girls  should  be  the  same  as  the  education 
of  boys. 

,    Tests  of  Argnments  for  Pertinence. 

144.  Of  course  no  honest  person  ever  uses  anything 
as  an  argument  without  believing  that  it  applies  to  the 
proposition  to  be  proved.  Yet  the  dangers  of  mistake 
in  selecting  facts,  and  especially  in  using  them,  making 
inferences  from  them,  interpreting  them  so  that  they 
will  count,  are  manifold.     Hence  it  was  necessary  in 


388  ARGUMENTATION. 

enumerating  the  different  things  that  may  count  as 
arguments  to  make  this  important  qualification :  The 
facts,  circumstances,  specific  instances,  appeals  to  experi- 
ence or  to  authorities,  precedents,  principles,  maxims,  and 
theories,  must  be  pertinent  to  the  conclusion  that  one  is 
trying  to  establish  ;   that  is,  to  the  proposition. 

How  easy  it  is  to  make  wrong  inferences  every  one 
can  illustrate  in  his  own  experience.  In  the  second 
paragraph  of  the  following,  Howells  warns  his  readers 
against  the  equally  common  danger  of  making  too  broad 
an  inference. 

When  I  see  five  or  six  boys  now  lying  under  a  tree  on 
the  grass,  and  they  fall  silent  as  I  pass  them,  I  have  no 
right  to  say  that  they  are  not  arranging  to  go  and  carry 
some  poor  widow's  winter  wood  into  her'  shed  and  pile  it 
neatly  up  for  her,  and  wish  to  keep  it  a  secret  from  every- 
body ;  but  forty  years  ago  I  should  have  had  good  reason 
for  thinking  that  they  were  debating  how  to  tie  a  piece  of 
her  clothesline  along  the  ground  so  that  when  her  orphan 
boy  came  out  for  an  armload  of  wood  after  dark,  he  would 
trip  on  it  and  send  his  wood  flying  all  over  the  yard. 

This  would  not  be  a  sign  that  they  were  morally  any  worse 
than  the  boys  who  read  Harper's  Young  People,  and  who 
would  every  one  die  rather  than  do  such  a  cruel  thing,  but 
that  they  had  not  really  thought  much  about  it. 

—  Howells  :  A  Boy's  Town,  p:  207. 

The  bridge  was  close  by  the  market-house,  but  for  some 
reason  or  no  reason  the  children  never  played  in  that  bridge. 
Perhaps  the  tollhouse  man  would  not  let  them;  my  boy 
stood  in  dread  of  the  tollhouse  man;  he  seemed  to  have 
such  a  severe  way  of  taking  the  money  from  the  teamsters. 
—  Howells  :  A  Boy's  Toivn,  p.  58. 


TEST  FOR   PERTINENCE.  389 

Some  of  the  boys  were  said  to  be  the  beaux  of  some  of  the 
girls.  My  boy  did  not  know  what  that  meant ;  in  his  own 
mind  he  could  not  disentangle  the  idea  of  bows  from  the 
idea  of  arrows.  —  Howells  :  A  Boifs  Town,  p.  58. 

145.    Assig-nments  on  the  Test  for  Pertinence. 

A.  In  the  following,  point  out  every  instance  in  which  the 
writer  (Macaulay)  charges  that  the  arguments  of  his  opponents 
are  not  pertinent. 

The  advocates  of  Charles,  like  the  advocates  of  other 
malefactors  against  whom  overwhelming  evidence  is  pro- 
duced, generally  decline  all  controversy  about  the  facts,  and 
content  themselves  with  calling  testimony  to  character.  He 
had  so  many  private  virtues  !  And  had  James  the  Second 
no  private  virtues  ?  Was  Oliver  Cromwell,  his  bitterest 
enemies  themselves  being  judges,  destitute  of  private  virtues  ? 
And  what,  after  all,  are  the  virtues  ascribed  to  Charles  ?  A 
religious  zeal,  not  more  sincere  than  that  of  his  son,  and 
fully  as  weak  and  narrow-minded,  and  a  few  of  the  ordinary 
household  decencies  which  half  the  tombstones  in  England 
claim  for  those  who  lie  beneath  them.  A  good  father  !  A 
good  husband !  Ample  apologies  indeed  for  fifteen  years  of 
persecution,  tyranny,  and  falsehood  ! 

We  charge  him  with  having  broken  his  coronation  oath ; 
and  we  are  told  that  he  kept  his  marriage  vow  !  A¥e  accuse 
him  of  having  given  up  his  people  to  the  merciless  inflictions 
of  the  most  hot-headed  and  hard-hearted  of  prelates ;  and 
the  defence  is,  that  he  took  his  little  son  on  his  knee  and 
kissed  him  !  We  censure  him  for  having  violated  the  articles 
of  the  Petition  of  Right,  after  having,  for  good  and  valuable 
consideration,  promised  to  observe  them;  and  we  are 
informed  that  he  was  accustomed  to  hear  prayers  at  six 
o'clock  in  the  morning!  It  is  to  such  considerations  as 
these,  together  with  his  Vandyke  dress,  his  handsome  face. 


390  ARGUMENTATION, 

and  his  peaked  beard,  that  he  owes,  we  verily  believe,  most 
of  his  popularity  with  the  present  generation. 

For  ourselves,  we  own  that  we  do  not  understand  the 
common  phrase,  a  good  man,  but  a  bad  king.  We  can  as 
easily  conceive  a  good  man  and  an  unnatural  father,  or  a 
good  man  and  a  treacherous  friend.  We  cannot,  in  estimat- 
ing the  character  of  an  individual,  leave  out  of  consideration 
his  conduct  in  the  most  important  of  all  human  relations ; 
and  if  in  that  relation  we  find  him  to  have  been  selfish, 
cruel,  and  deceitful,  we  shall  take  the  liberty  to  call  him  a 
bad  marf  in  spite  of  all  his  temperance  at  table,  and  all  his 
regularity  at  chapel. 

B.  Thomas  Campbell  was  the  first  editor  of  Shakespeare  to 
defend  Shylock.     In  his  edition  of  the  plays,  in  1838,  he  said  :  — 

In  the  picture  of  the  Jew  there  is  not  the  tragic  grandeur 
of  Richard  III,  but  there  is  a  similar  force  of  mind  and  the 
same  subtlety  of  intellect,  though  it  is  less  selfish.  In  point 
of  courage  I  would  give  the  palm  to  Shylock,  for  he  was  an 
ill-used  man  and  the  champion  of  an  oppressed  race ;  nor  is 
he  a  hypocrite,  like  Richard.  In  fact,  Shakespeare,  while  he 
lends  himself  to  the  prejudices  against  Jews,  draws  so  philo- 
sophical a  picture  of  the  energetic  Jewish  character  that 
he  traces  the  blame  of  its  faults  to  the  iniquity  of  the  Chris- 
tian world.  Shylock's  arguments  are  more  logical  than 
those  of  his  opponents,  and  the  latter  overcome  him  only  by 
a  legal  quibble.  But  he  is  a  usurer  and  liver  on  the  interest 
of  lent  moneys ;  and  what  but  Christian  persecution  forced 
him  to  live  by  these  means  ?  But  he  is  also  inhuman  and 
revengeful.  Why?  Because  they  called  him  a  (ft)g  and 
spat  upon  his  Jewish  gaberdine.  They  voided  their  rheum 
upon  him,  and  he  in  return  wished  to  void  his  revenge  upon 
them.  All  this  is  natural,  and  Shylock  has  nothing  un- 
natural about  him. 


TEST  FOR   PERTINENCE.  •      391 

What  inference  do  you  draw  from  the  fact  that  no  previous 
editor  of  Shakespeare  expressed  such  an  opinion  about  Shylock  ? 
Suppose  some  one  should  say  :  "  This  inference  is  not  warranted. 
Previous  editors  didn't  mention  it  because  it  was  self-evident." 
How  would  you  make  reply  ? 

C.    What  wrong  inference  is  charged  in  the  following? 

Now,  let  me  call  attention  to  some  other  facts  which  pro- 
tectionist politicians  do  not  like  to  discuss  pointedly. 

When  comparisons  are  made  of  wages  paid  in  this  conn- 
try  with  wages  paid  in  the  same  industries  in  Europe,  pro- 
tectionists compare  the  amounts  earned  for  a  certain  time. 
By  this  method  they  conceal  the  fact  that  the  American 
working  man  produces  more,  in  proportion  to  his  pay,  than 
his  European  brother. 

American  shoe  workers,  for  instance,  may  get  more  wages 
per  week  than  English  shoe  workers,  but  they  turn  out  so 
many  more  shoes  in  a  week  that  the  labor  cost  of  a  pair  of 
shoes  here  is  less  than  it  is  in  England. 

And  so  in  many  other  industries. 

That  is  one  reason  why  many  American  products  under- 
sell European  products  in  Europe  and  elsewhere. 

Protectionists  forget  all  about  this  when  they  speak  of 
"protecting  American  industries  from  the  cheap  foreign 
labor  clamoring  for  a  chance  to  climb  over  the  bars." 

When  hat  manufacturers  plead  that  it  will  be  unprofit- 
able for  them  to  continue  in  the  hat  business  without  a  tariff, 
they  practically  declare  that  their  business  is  an  unnecessary 
burden  on  the  American  people.  If  the  hat  business  cannot 
exist  without  compelling  the  people  to  pay  it  a  sum  over  and 
above  the  true  value  of  its  products,  it  is  not  a  benefit  to  the 
community.     It  is  an  injury. 

Likewise  if  Southern  growers  of  cotton,  pineapples,  or 
oranges  tell  the  truth  in  proclaiming  that  a  protective  tariff 


392     •  ARGUMENTATION. 

is  needed  for  their  products,  they  only  inform  the  American 
people  that  the  country  would  be  better  off  without  them. 

To  believe  them  is  to  believe  that  the  United  States  is  so 
poor  a  country  that  it  can  produce  nothing  which  can  hold 
its  own  in  an  open  market,  on  its  own  unsupported  merits. 

To  believe  them,  is  to  believe  that  American  labor  is  so 
inefficient,  that  it  cannot  produce  as  much  in  proportion  to 
wages  as  the  most  degraded  and  poorest  paid  foreign  labor. 

We  know  better  than  that.  —  The  Public,  12 :  584. 

D.  Must  we  assume  that  the  person  who  advocates  the  follow- 
ing proposition  is  opposed  to  all  football  games?  —  "  Interscholas- 
tic  football  games  should  be  prohibited."  What  other  assumption 
is  possible?  What  other  theory  may  he  hold,  consistent  with  the 
proposition  ? 

Tests  of  Arguments  for  Strength. 

146.  Another  test  of  arguments  has  to  do  with  their 
different  force  and  validity.  Absolute  certainty  is  not 
possible.  We  must  usually  be  content  with  something 
less.  When  we  say  that  a  thing  is  "  morally  certain," 
we  imply  that  we  are  convinced  that  it  is  safe  to  act 
upon  it.  The  best  that  most  arguments  can  accomplish 
is  to  establish  a  high  degree  of  probability  that  the 
proposition  is  true.  Various  degrees  of  probability 
may  be  distinguished  in  various  kinds  of  arguments, 
ranging  from  high  to  low,  and  ending  with  mere  pos- 
sibility. Some  arguments  only  tend  to  show  that  the 
proposition  might  be  or  ought  to  be  true.  This  is  illus- 
trated in  the  following  paragraph  on  the  proposition, 
Hamlet  was  really  mad. 

From  the  natural  structure  and  working  of  his  mind ; 
from  the  recent  doings  in  the  royal  family  ;  from  the  state 


TESTS   OF  ARGUMENTS  FOR   STRENGTH,  393 

of  things  at  the  Court;  still  more  from  his  interview  with 
the  Ghost,  and  the  Ghost's  appalling  disclosures  and  in- 
junctions, "shaking  his  disposition  with  thoughts  beyond 
the  reaches  of  his  soul " ;  above  all,  from  his  instant  view 
and  grasp  of  the  whole  dire  situation  in  which  he  is  now 
placed ;  —  from  all  this,  he  ought  to  be  crazy ;  and  it  were 
vastly  to  his  credit,  both  morally  and  mentally,  to  be  so : 
we  might  well  be  amazed  at  the  morbid  strength  or  the 
natural  weakness  of  his  mind,  if  he  were  not  so.  We  are 
told  that,  against  stupidity,  the  gods  themselves  are  power- 
less. And,  sure  enough,  there  are  men  with  hearts  so  hard, 
and  with  heads  so  stolid  and  stockish,  that  even  the  gods 
cannot  make  them  mad ;  at  least,  not  unless  through  some 
physical  disease.  Hamlet,  I  think,  can  hardly  be  a  man  of 
that  stamp. 

—  Hudson  :    Shakespeare's  Life,  Art,  and  Characters,  II, 
p.  270. 

Further  arguments  or  arguments  of  a  different  kind 
may  furnish  reasons  for  inferring  that  the  proposition 
is  probable.  Thus  Professor  Hudson  continues  the 
argument  quoted  above  by  offering  the  argument  that 
a  man  after  such  an  experience  with  a  ghost  as  Hamlet 
had  could  hardly  continue  to  be  of  the  same  mental 
soundness  as  he  was  before.  Then  he  cites  the  fact 
that  Hamlet  is  believed  to  be  really  mad  by  all  the 
other  persons  in  the  play,  except  the  King,  whose  evil 
conscience  makes  him  suspicious  that  the  madness  is 
assumed  to  cover  some  evil  design.  "  Of  course," 
argues  Professor  Hudson,  "  this  so  general  belief  arises 
because  he  acts  precisely  as  madmen  often  do  ;  because 
his  conduct  displays  the  proper  symptoms  and  indica- 
tions of  madness.   .   .   .     And  indeed  it  seems  to  be  ad- 


394  ARGUMENTATION. 

mitted  that  if  Hamlet  were  actually  mad,  he  could  not 
enact  the  madman  more  perfectly  than  he  does.  .  .  . 
But  if  so,  then  what  ground  is  there  for  saying  it  is  not 
a  genuine  case  ? "  He  also  mentions  several  distin- 
guished physicians  of  approved  skill  in  the  treatment 
of  insanity,  who,  in  our  time,  have  made  a  special  study 
of  Hamlet's  case  and  have  all  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  Hamlet  was  really  mad.  Evidence  like  this  last 
tends  to  show  that  the  case  under  discussion  is  not  ex- 
ceptional, many  other  similar  cases  being  quoted  that 
are  not  disputed.  This  greatly  heightens  the  proba- 
bility that  the  proposition  is  true. 

From  all  this  it  is  clear  that  the  relative  weight  of  the 
different  argumeuts  should  be  carefully  considered,  and  that 
the  arguments  should  be  the  best  of  w^hich  the  case  is  ca- 
pable. 

Assignments  on  the  Test  for  Strength. 

147-  Compare  the  two  briefs  that  are  given  below.  Which  ar- 
guments establish  only  a  probability  that  the  proposition  is  true  ? 
Which  are  the  strongest  arguments?  Cancel  from  each  brief  the 
arguments  which  are  answered  satisfactorily  in  the  other,  and 
decide,  from  the  remainder,  which  brief  is  the  stronger. 

Unanimity  of  Verdict  ought  to  he  eliminated  from  the  Jury 
System.     Because 

A.    The  requirement  of  unanimity  is  destroying  the 
faith  of  the  people  in  the  whole  jury  system. 
For 
I.    It  results  in  miscarriage  of  justice  and  vast 
expense  to  the  people.     For 
a.  The  disagreement  of  juries  renders  many 
trials  futile. 


TESTS  FOR   STRENGTH.  395 

B.  The  system  is  inconsistent  with  the  theory  of  our 

government  and  the  genius  of  our  free  institu- 
tions.    Fo7^ 
I.    We  do  not  require  unanimity  in  our  higher 

courts. 
II.    In  all  legislation  by  our  government,  a  ma- 
jority only  is  required. 
III.    Unanimity  is  not  required  even  to  impeach 
the  President  of  the  United  States. 

C.  The  idea  of  unanimity  ignores  the  fact  that  all  men 

are  not  constituted  alike.     Fo7' 
1.    Different  minds  present  innumerable  shades 
and   degrees   of   intelligence,   education, 
strength  of  character,  power  of  observa- 
tion, and  judgment  of  human  nature. 
II.    The  opinions  of  men  are  influenced  to  a  great 
\  extent  by  their  preconceived  ideas  upon 

•     matters  of  religion,  ethics,  politics,  etc. 

D.  The  system  is  alfeurd.     For 

I.  It  gives  one  mind  equal  weight  with  that  of 
eleven  others. 

E.  The  system  has  been  modified  in  several  European 

countries,  and  the  modification  works  success- 
fully.    For 

I.  In  Sweden  only  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  jury 
is  required,  and  the  people  are  satisfied 
with  it. 

II.    In  Scotland  a  majority  is  required. 

F.  Great  historians  and  lawyers  condemn  the  present 

system.     For 


396  ARGUMENTATION. 

I.    Hallam  refers  to  the  requirement  of  unanimity 
as  a  relic  of  the  middle  ages  and  of  bar- 
barism. 
II.   Judge  Cooley  condemned  the  present  system. 

G.    The  present  system  should  be  amended,  in  criminal 
cases,  at  least.     For 
I.   A  defendant  in  criminal  cases  can  move  time 
and  again  for  a  new  trial,  while  the  prose- 
cution, under  the  Constitution,  cannot  do 
so. 

H.    Refutation.     The  claim  cannot  stand  that  the  rule 

of  unanimity  secures  a  full,  free,  and  effective 

discussion  and  deliberation  of  the  case  by  the 

jurymen.     For 

I.    Experience   teaches  that  in  most   cases   the 

jurors'  minds  are  finally  made  up  before 

they  retire  for  deliberation. 

I.    Refutation.     The  claim  is  unsound  that  as  a  nec- 
essary consequence  of  the  present  system,  each 
member  of  the  jury  becomes  impressed  with  a 
sense  of  his  own  responsibility.     For 
I.   Does  not  the  oath  taken  by  the  juror,  if  he  is 
at  all  conscientious,  impress  him  with  the 
same  sense  of  his  important  duty  ? 

J.    Refutation.     That  the  system  is  ancient,  is  not  a 
convincing  argument.     For 
I.   Do  we  think  of  applying  this  rule  of  ancientry 
to  any  other  department  of  knowledge  ? 

K.  Refutation.  The  claim  is  unsound  that  the  con- 
current opinion  of  twelve  men  is,  by  the  doc- 
trine of  chance  and  probability,  more  likely  to 
be  correct  than  that  of  nine.     For 


TESTS  FOR   STBENGTH.  397 

I.  It  is  also  true  by  the  law  of  probability  that 
the  verdict  of  nine  or  ten  is  more  likely 
to  be  correct  than  that  of  a  minority 
of  three  or  two. 

L.    Refutation.     The  argument  that  unanimity  inspires 

public  confidence  in  the  justice  of  the  decision 

is  not  convincing.     For 

I.   Experience  proves  that  there  is  little  public 

confidence  left  in  the  system  as  it  stands. 

Unanimity  of  Verdict  ought  not  to  he  eliminated  from  the 
Jury  System.     Because 

A.  The  theory  of  our  law  in  regard  to  criminal  justice 

would  be  destroyed.     For 
I.   Every  essential  allegation  made  by  the  prose- 
cution must  be  proved  beyond  a  reason- 
able   doubt    in    order     to     entitle     the 
government  to  a  verdict.     For 
a.    As  long  as  one  juryman  disagrees  there 
exists  a  reasonable  doubt. 

B.  It  secures  a  free  and  full  discussion  of  the  case  by 

the  jurymen.     For 
I.    They  must  turn  the  question  with  the  facts 
concerning  it  over  and  over  in  their  pri- 
vate room  until  all  do  agree  before  they 
can  fulfil  the  function  of  a  jury. 

C.  The  incompetency  of  some  jurors  makes  unanimous 

verdicts  all  the  more  necessary.     For 
I.   By  the    doctrine  of  chance    and  probability 
twelve  are  more  likely  to  be  right  than 
nine,  ten,  or  eleven.     For 
II.   As  long  as  the  minority  is  given  weight  the 
"  reasonable  doubt "  is  represented. 


398  ARGUMENTATION. 

D.  The  responsibility  upon  each  member  of  the  body- 

would  be  lessened  by  giving  up  the  requirement 
of  unanimity. 

E.  There  would  be  less  public  confidence  in  the  justice 

of  decisions  if  the  unanimity  requirement  were 
abolished.     For 
I.   A  unanimous  verdict  is  indisputable. 

F.  Mefutation.     The   argument   that   all  men  are  not 

constituted  alike  is  irrelevant.  For 
I.  Every  member  of  a  jury  has  the  same  facts  to 
deal  with  and  receives  them  under  the 
same  conditions. 
II.  No  juryman  can  carry  his  religious  or  politi- 
cal prejudi-ces  with  him  without  violating 
his  solemn  obligation. 

Tests  of  Arguments  for  Consistency. 

148.  A  third  test  of  arguments  arises  from  the 
natural  demand  for  consistency.  Inferences  drawn  by  the 
same  person  from  the  same  facts  must  harmonize  vrith  one 
another.  Thus  Burke  in  the  following  passage  from  the 
Speech  on  Conciliation  makes  an  argument  out  of  the  in- 
consistency of  his  opponents  when  they  declare  both 
that  the  trade  laws  are  worthless  and  that  they  must  be 
preserved. 

The  more  moderate  among  the  opposers  of  parliamentary 
concession  freely  confess  that  they  hope  no  good  from  taxa- 
tion ;  but  they  apprehend  the  colonists  have  further  views, 
and  if  this  point  were  conceded,  they  would  instantly  attack 
the  trade  laws.  These  gentlemen  are  convinced  that  this 
was  the  intention  from  the  beginning,  and  the  quarrel  of 


TESTS   OF  ARGUMENTS  FOR    CONSISTENCY.       399 

the  Americans  with  taxation  was  no  more  than  a  cloak  and 
cover  to  this  design.  Such  has  been  the  language  even  of  a 
gentleman  of  real  moderation,  and  of  a  natural  temper  well 
adjusted  to  fair  and  equal  government.  I  am,  however.  Sir, 
not  a  little  surprised  at  this  kind  of  discourse  whenever  I 
hear  it  j  and  I  am  the  more  surprised  on  account  of  the  argu- 
ments which  I  constantly  find  in  company  with  it,  and  which 
are  often  urged  from  the  same  mouths,  and  on  the  same 
day. 

For  instance,  when  we  allege  that  it  is  against  reason  to 
tax  a  people  under  so  many  restraints  in  trade  as  the  Ameri- 
cans, the  Noble  Lord  in  the  Blue  Ribbon  shall  tell  you  that 
the  restraints  on  trade  are  futile  and  useless ;  of  no  ad- 
vantage to  us,  and  of  no  burthen  to  those  on  whom  they  are 
imposed ;  that  the  trade  to  America  is  not  secured  by  the 
Acts  of  ]N"avigation,  but  by  the  natural  and  irresistible 
advantage  of  a  commercial  preference. 

Such  is  the  merit  of  the  trade  laws  in  this  posture  of  the 
debate.  But  when  strong  internal  circumstances  are  urged 
against  the  taxes ;  when  the  scheme  is  dissected ;  when  ex- 
perience and  the  nature  of  things  are  brought  to  prove,  and 
do  prove,  the  utter  impossibility  of  obtaining  an  effective 
revenue  from  the  colonies ;  when  these  things  are  pressed, 
or  rather  press  themselves,  so  as  to  drive  the  advocates  of 
colony  taxes  to  a  clear  admission  of  the  futility  of  the 
scheme  —  then,  Sir,  the  sleeping  trade  laws  revive  from 
their  trance  ;  and  this  useless  taxation  is  to  be  kept  sacred, 
not  for  its  own  sake,  but  as  a  counter-guard  and  security  of 
the  laws  of  trade. 

Then,  Sir,  you  keep  up  revenue  laws  which  are  mis- 
chievous, in  order  to  preserve  trade  laws  that  are  useless. 
Such  is  the  wisdom  of  our  plan  in  both  its  members.  They 
are  separately  given  up  as  of  no  value  ;  and  yet  one  is  always 
to  be  defended  for  the  sake  of  the  other. 


400  ARGUMENTATION. 

149.  *A.ssigTiinents  on  the  Test  for  Consistency. 

A.  What  inconsistency  is  charged  in  the  following  ? 

Protectionists  get  mixed  on  their  own  argument  when 
they  compare  conditions  in  England  and  in  Germany.  If 
European  labor  is  all  that  protectionists  say  it  is,  how  can  a 
protective  tariff  help  it  ?  Erom  whom  is  it  to  be  protected  ? 
What  particular  pauper  labor  will  endanger  Germany,  Italy, 
Erance,  or  Russia  if  they  remove  their  protective  tariffs  ? 
What  pauper  labor  is  flooding  England  ?  To  be  sure 
English  protectionists  have  raised  a  howl  about  German 
goods,  but  German  labor  happens  just  now  to  be  in  what 
passes  for  a  prosperous  condition ;  and  this  cannot  be  on 
account  of  the  German  tariff,  since  Italy  and  E-ussia  have 
much  higher  protective  tariffs,  without  being  so  benefited. 
May  it  not  be  because  the  German  government  has  checked 
railroad  monopoly  almost  entirely,  and  land  monopoly  to 
some  extent  ?  —  The  Public,  12  :  584. 

n 

B.  Is  there  any  inconsistency  in  the  following  ? 

1.  Saturday  should  be  preserved  as  a  school  holiday. 

For 

A.  All  teachers  need  Saturday  for  rest  and  rec- 

reation. 

B.  All  teachers  need  Saturday  for  attending  in- 

stitutes and  for  private  study. 

2.  Free  text-books  should  be  provided  in  the  schools. 

For 

A.  The  system  puts  rich  and  poor  on  the  same 

basis. 

B.  Any  one  may  continue  to  buy  his  own  books, 

as  now,  if  he  likes. 

3.  Discovery  Day  should  be  a  school  holiday.     For 


TEST  FOR    CONSISTENCY.  401 

A.  It  would   enable   us  to   show  reverence   for 

Columbus. 

B.  It  comes  at  the  very  time  when  the  football 

games  are  more  numerous  than  the  dates 
available  now. 

C.  Often  the  question  method  is  used  effectively  in  applying 
the  test  for  inconsistency.  Turn  the  following  questions  into  the 
answers  expected.  Answer  the  questions  in  the  way  evidently  not 
expected  and  then  try  to  harmonize  them. 

Let  me  ask  a  few  questions  for  categorical  answers :  — 

First :  If  all  tariffs  were  abolished,  is  it  true  or  not  that 
the  country  would  be  flooded  with  foreign  goods  ? 

Second :  If  true,  would  the  foreigners  send  these  goods 
over  free,  or  would  they  want  to  be  paid  for  them  ? 

Third:  If  they  should  want  to  be  paid,  would' it  not  be 
necessary  to  perform  labor  of  some  kind  in  this  country  to 
produce  wealth  for  export  to  pay  for  those  goods  ? 

Fourth:  If  the  answer  to  the  third  question  is  "yes," 
does  it  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  more  goods  imported, 
the  more  demand  there  must  be  for  American  labor  to  pro- 
duce exports  ?     If  not,  why  not  ? 

Fifth :  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  answer  to  the  third 
question  is  "  no,"  where  is  the  wealth  to  come  from  to  pay 
for  the  "  flood  "  of  foreign  goods  ? 

Sixth:  If  pay  for  the  goods  is  not  forthcoming,  will  not 
the  "flood"  cease? 

Seventh:  If  it  should  not  cease  in  spite  of  no  pay, 
wouldn't  the  foreigners  be  either  an  unusually  silly  or  an 
unusually  generous  lot?  Wouldn't  they  be  voluntarily 
enabling  us  to  get  all  the  things  we  need  without  working  ? 

All  the  above  questions  following  the  first  are  framed  on 
the  supposition  of  an  affirmative  answer  to  the  first  one. 
Of  course  if  this  supposition  is  wrong,  if  any  protectionist 


402  ARG  UMENTA  TION. 

should  unexpectedly  reply  to  the  first  question  in  the 
negative,  he  would  thereby  deny  the  protection  theory  of  a 
"  flood  of  foreign  goods."  —  The  Public,  12 :  586. 

The  Order  of  Arguments.  > 

150.  The  strongest  argument  should  be  reserved 
until  the  last,  because  what  is  last  said  is  best  remem- 
bered. But  the  beginning  is  a  strategic  point  as  well 
as  the  end.  It  will  not  do  then  to  put  the  weakest 
argument  first.  Appropriate  to  the  beginning  is  an 
argument  that  is  supposedly  familiar  to  all.  Being 
familiar,  it  affords  an  easy  introduction  to  arguments 
th^t  are  not  so  familiar  or  so  easy  of  apprehension.  It 
is  usually  the  argument  that  comes  to  your  mind  first, 
not  the  one  which  you  have  sought  out  in  books  or 
have  reached  after  hard  thinking.  This  most  familiar 
argument  will  naturally  call  up  the  objection  that  is 
most  commonly  made  to  the  proposition.  Reasons  why 
the  objection  is  not  sound  are  then  in  place.  The 
objection  being  disposed  of,  one  is  again  face  to  face 
with  the  proposition  itself.  Arguments  establishing 
probability  in  favor  of  the  proposition  may  then  be 
taken  up  in  the  order  of  increasing  strength  until  the 
strongest  of  all  is  reached.  This  may  be  an  argument 
showing  the  desirability  of  the  thing  proposed,  the 
effects  that  are  to  be  expected,  the  interests  that  are 
to  be  affected  beneficially.  Objections  will  be  con- 
sidered and  answered  in  connection  with  those  argu- 
ments against  which  they  would  naturally  be  urged. 
The  very  end  is  not  the  place  for  considering  objec- 
tions.    That  should  be  reserved  for  a  concluding  sum- 


THE  BRIEF.  403 

mary  reaffirming   the    principal  arguments   that   have 
been  made. 

The  order  of  arguments  thus  recommended  isv  about 
as  follows:  — 

(1)  A  strong  argument  for  the  proposition,  chosen 
because  it  is  familiar  to  the  audience. 

(2)  The  answer  to  this  argument  refuted. 

(3)  Succeeding  arguments,  with  refutation  of  an- 
swers, arranged  in  the  order  of  climax,  the  conclusion 
to  be  a  summary. 

151.  Assignment  on  the  Order  of  Arguments. 

Criticise  the  order  of  arguments  in  any  one  of  the  longer  briefs 
printed  in  this  chapter. 

The  Brief. 

152.  After  collecting  arguments  and  before  writing 
them  out  in  full,  it  is  highly  desirable  that  they  be  dis- 
played to  the  eye  in  a  manner  that  will  show  their 
logical  relationship  to  each  other  and  to  the  main  propo- 
sition. In  other  words,  a  brief  like  those  printed  in 
this  chapter  should  be  made.  This  is  desirable  for  three 
reasons:  (1)  All  that  is  to  be  said  can  be  seen  as  a 
whole,  and  the  soundness  of  each  part  can  be  tested 
separately  before  the  writing  begins;  (2)  if  there  are 
any  gaps,  or  omissions  of  necessary  arguments,  they 
may  be  detected  and  filled;  (3)  the  brief  supplies  a 
guide  while  the  writing  is  being  done.  There  are  two 
respects  in  which  a  brief  differs  from  an  ordinary  out- 
line. 

1.    The  brief  is  made  up  of  complete  sentences. 


404  ARGUMENTATION. 

2.  In  the  brief  each  sentence  reads  as  a  reason  for  the 
sentence  of  next  higher  rank. 

Suppose  that  some  one  has  decided  to  write  an  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  the  proposition,  "  Interscholastic 
football  promotes  the  best  interests  of  high  schools." 
His  reading  and  thinking  on  the  proposition  will  result 
in  an  accumulation  of  notes,  having  no  order  or  arrange- 
ment, and  showing  no  clear  relationship  to  each  other. 
The  following  is  such  a  collection :  — 

1.  Football  as  proper  a  game  for  high  schools  as  colleges. 
2.  Students  need  exercise.  3.  The  team  promotes  a  healthy 
spirit  of  loyalty  to  the  high  school.  4.  The  team  an  object 
of  pride.  5.  Those  who  look  at  the  games  are  benefited  too, 
—  kept  in  open  air.  6.  Benefits  to  players.  7.  You  can't 
have  football  without  iuterscholastic  games.  8.  Football 
players  as  good  students  as  the  average.  9.  Keeps  some 
boys  in  school  longer.  10.  Nobody  would  try  for  the  team 
if  there  were  no  important  games  coming  on.  11.  Learn 
about  other  high  schools.  12.  Not  so  dangerous  as  repre- 
sented. 13.  Revise  the  rules  to  correct  evils  ;  don't  abolish 
the  game. 

Now,  if  he  is  wise,  the  writer  of  these  notes  will  have 
accumulated  them  on  separate  small  sheets  of  paper  or 
cards,  one  note  to  a  sheet  or  card,  so  that  rearrangement 
can  be  easily  made.  He  tries  several  arrangements,  put- 
ting those  together  that  belong  together,  and  discover- 
ing some  that  include  others  as  subordinate.  He  also 
makes  for  each  group  of  notes  a  heading  to  which 
the  set  is  subordinate.  Then  he  turns  this  heading 
and  each  of  his  notes  into  sentences,  indicating  their 
respective   rank  by   numbers   and  letters  and  by  the 


THE  BRIEF.  405 

system  of  indention  shown  below.     The  result  is  the 
brief. 

Proposition :  Interscholastic  football  promotes  the  best  inter- 
ests of  high  schools.     Because 

A.  Football  (interscholastic  and  otherwise)  is  a  bene- 

ficial form  of  athletics.     For 

1.  It  promotes  the  health  of  the  players.     For 

a.  The    players    must    observe    the    rules 

against   smoking   and   excesses   of    all 
kinds. 

b.  They  are  kept  much  in  the  open  air  at 

vigorous  play. 

2.  It  promotes  the  health  of  the  onlookers.     For 

a.    It  brings  many  into  the  air  who  are  in- 
clined to  stay  indoors  too  much. 

3.  Objection  answered.     The  dangers  of  the  game 

are  exaggerated.     For 

a.  The  injuries  to  players  are  few  and  not 

usually  serious. 

b.  They    can    be    diminished    by    stricter 

rules. 

4.  Interest  in  the  game  keeps  some  boys  in  school 

longer. 

5.  Objection  answered.     Football   players  are  as 

good  students  as  the  average. 

6.  It   promotes   self-control,    courage,    and   obedi- 

ence in  the  players. 

7.  It  is  beneficial  to  colleges;   why  not  to  high 

schools  ? 

B.  Interscholastic  games  are  advantageous.     For 

1.   They  enable  visiting   students  to  learn  more 
about  other  schools. 


406  ARGUMENTATION. 

2.  There  would  be  no  football  without  the  inter- 

scholastic  games. 

3.  They  promote  loyalty  to  the  high  school. 

The  brief  does  not  show  the  reasons  for  the  arguments 
of  the  lowest  rank,  —  those  marked  a,  5,  c,  etc.,  —  nor 
in  some  cases  for  the  arguments  m'arked  1,  2,  3,  etc. 
Yet  it  is  upon  these  reasons  that  all  the  arguments  of 
higher  rank  must  stand  or  fall.  It  is  evident  that  facts, 
circumstances,  particulars,  illustrations,  statistics,  au- 
thorities, must  be  ready  by  which  to  prove  the  unsup- 
ported arguments  of  the  lowest  rank.  1  a,  for  example, 
demands  that  the  rules  be  mentioned,  whereas  3  b  re- 
quires a  statement  of  the  stricter  rules  proposed  ;  4  and  6 
need  explanation  and  examples  to  support  them  ;  5  calls 
for  local  examples ;  ^  1,  2,  3,  need  to  be  explained  by 
telling  how  visiting  students  learn  about  other  schools, 
and  why  there  would  be  no  football  without  the  inter- 
scholastic  feature.  It  is  usually  true  of  a  brief  that  the 
real  items  of  fact  or  theory  on  which  all  of  the  arguments 
rest  do  not  appear  in  it.  When  the  writing  of  the  argu- 
ment is  begun,  therefore,  these  final  facts  must  not  be 
forgotten. 

153.  Miscellaneous  Assignments. 

A.  Criticise  one  of  your  own  briefs  for  logic  and  mechanical 
form. 

B.  Examine  the  ideal  picture  of  ^sop  on  p.  407  (Figure  12). 
Does  JEsop  as  he  is  there  represented  look  like  the  sort  of  person 
who  could  compose  the  well-known  fables?  Endeavor  to  convince 
a  classmate  that  the  artist  has  (or  has  not)  imagined  a  suitable 
face  and  fiorure. 


408  ARGUMENTATION. 

C.  The  picture  entitled  the  Martyr's  Daughter,  on  p.  409 
(Figure  13),  may  be  interpreted  in  several  different  ways.  After 
careful  study  of  it,  interpret  it  in  your  own  way,  and  then  attempt 
to  prove  that  your  interpretation  is  correct. 

D.  Suppose  that  some  question  has  arisen  regarding  the  rela- 
tionship of  the  three  characters  in  the  picture  on  p.  410  (Figure 
14).  Give  your  view  and  defend  it  by  the  strongest  arguments 
you  can  think  of. 

II.    Formal  Debate. 

Argumentation  and  Debate. 

154.  Debate  is  argumentation  in  which  the  affirma- 
tive and  the  negative  of  a  proposition  are  both  repre- 
sented on  one  occasion,  each  by  at  least  one  advocate. 
Sometimes  a  written  debate  is  conducted  in  a  magazine 
or  in  an  English  class ;  but  usually  debate  is  oral  and 
requires  the  bodily  presence  of  the  debaters.  Debate 
is  formal  or  informal. 

It  is  formal  when  conducted  strictly  according  to 
rules  previously  adopted.  Specimen  rules  are  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

1.  In  the  month  of  October,  1912,  and  in  alternate 
years  thereafter,  school  A  shall  offer  a  proposition. 
School  B  shall  have  the  right  to  demand  definitions  of 
the  proposition  or  of  any  of  its  terms,  and  within  three 
weeks  shall  choose  and  announce  the  side  which  it  will 
support.  The  definitions  shall  be  printed  on  the  pro- 
grammes immediately  following  the  proposition.  In 
October,  1913,  and  in  alternate  years  thereafter,  school  B 
shall  offer  a  proposition  and  school  A  shall  have  the 
rights  and  duties  assigned  above  to  school  B. 


1 

,1..'.-;;.^;,'^ 

:^m 

ab^  .hhuhMI^H 

g^%p^^i 

€r     '  '^^^^^B 

III: 

«^,'«Br^ 

^s^ 

ma^ 

^j^imii^i  ^ 

l» 

W'     s 

409 


410 


ARGUMENTATION  AND  DEBATE.  411 

2.  No  person  shall  represent  either  school  on  the  de- 
bate team  who  is  not  at  the  time  a  bona  fide  member  of 
the  school,  carrying  the  full  work  of  his  class  and  not 
delinquent  in  his  studies. 

3.  The  order  of  speakers  and  the  length  of  speeches 
shall  be  as  follows:  — 

(a)  First  affirmative  speaker  10  minutes. 

(5)  First  negative  speaker  10  minutes, 

(c)  Second  affirmative  speaker  10  minutes. 

(cZ)  Second  negative  speaker  10  minutes, 

(e)   Third  affirmative  speaker  10  minutes. 

(/)  Third  negative  speaker  10  minutes. 

(^)  Second  negative  speaker  5  minutes. 

(A)  Second  affirmative  speaker  5  minutes. 

(^)    Third  negative  speaker  5  minutes. 

(/)  Third  affirmative  speaker  5  minutes. 

(^)  First  negative  speaker  5  minutes. 

(^l)    First  affirmative  speaker  5  minutes. 

4.  In  the  odd  numbered  years,  at  least  four  weeks 
before  the  debate,  school  A  shall  propose  a  list  of  at 
least  six  names  for  judges,  and  school  B  shall  have  the 
right  and  duty  to  choose  the  judges  from  this  list  or  to 
call  for  further  lists.  No  alumnus  or  official  of  either 
school  shall  be  proposed  as  judge,  and  at  least  three  of 
the  persons  named  on  each  list  shall  be  non-residents  of 
the  places  in  which  the  schools  are  located. 

5.  At  the  close  of  each  debate,  each  judge,  without 
leaving  his  seat,  shall  fill  the  blank  in  the  following 
statement  with    the  word  "affirmative"  or    the  word 


412  ARGUMENTATION, 

"  negative,'*  and  shall  sign  the  statement  with  his  name 
and  hand  it  to  an  usher  who  shall  immediately  convey 
it  to  the  chairman. 

"  Without  regard  to  the  merits  of  the  question  and  to 
my  own  convictions  thereon,  I  hereby  declare  that  in 
my  opinion  the  most  effective  debating  has  been  done 
by  the ." 

6.  It  shall  not  be  allowable  for  any  speaker  to  intro- 
duce into  the  debate  testimony  or  authority,  or  letters 
or  other  written  matter  from  experts,  which  has  not 
appeared  in  print. 

Informal  debate  may  arise  between  two  people  in 
conversation;  it  may  arise  in  any  class  room  in  the 
course  of  a  recitation;  it  may  be  provided  for  in  an 
English  class  with  no  limit  on  the  number  of  speakers. 
The  side  that  each  shall  take,  or  the  time  that  each  may 
occupy,  is  not  specified,  though  there  may  be  a  rule  on 
any  of  these  points  if  desired.  Sometimes  an  informal 
debate  is  arranged  as  follows:  — 

Two  leaders  are  appointed  a  few  days  in  advance  and 
allowed  to  prepare  as  thoroughly  as  the  brief  time  will 
permit.  At  the  debate  these  leaders  make  the  opening 
and  the  closing  speeches,  the  intervening  time  being 
occupied  by  two-minute  speeches  by  as  many  others  as 
can  be  heard. 

Informal  debate  is  valuable  in  cultivating  readiness 
of  speech  and  aptness  of  reply.  Formal  debate  is 
valuable  in  the  protracted  training  that  it  affords  the 
debaters. 

We  shall  treat  of  Formal  Debate  in  the  remainder  of 
this  chapter. 


DEBATABLE  PROPOSITIONS.  413 

Debatable  Propositions. 

155.  The  selection  and  wording  of  the  proposition 
for  formal  debate  is  the  first  matter  of  importance. 
Not  all  propositions  are  debatable  in  the  sense  of  being 
available  for  school  or  interscholastic  debate. 

Subjects  of  present-day  public  interest  offer  the  best 
propositions.  "  Labor  unions  are  justified  in  limiting 
the  number  of  apprentices  ";  "  Secret  societies  in  public 
high  schools  should  be  prohibited  by  law,"  are  samples 
of  better  propositions  than  "  Public  high  schools  should 
not  be  supported  by  taxation,"  for  the  last-named 
proposition  is  no  longer  a  live  issue  in  this  country. 

The  proposition  should  be  fair  to  both  sides;  it 
should  not  be  stated  so  that  one  side  is  conspicuously 
weaker  than  the  other.  Thus,  few  would  support  the 
negative  side  of  the  proposition,  "The  public  high 
schools  should  teach  good  deportment,"  but  many 
would  resist  the  proposition,  "  Every  public  high  school 
should  be  compelled  by  law  to  maintain  regular  daily 
classes  in  the  study  of  good  deportment." 

The  proposition  should  not  be  ambiguously  or  trickily 
worded.  "  Our  present  policy  in  the  Philippines 
should  be  made  permanent,"  is  not  a  well-worded 
proposition  because  the  first  three  words  mean  different 
things  to  different  people;  but  "The  United  States 
should  grant  independence  to  the  Philippines  before 
1925  "  is  susceptible  of  but  one  meaning,  and  would  set 
up  the  same  conflict  without  offering  the  same  chance 
to  quibble. 

Even  when  we  have  done  our  best  to  state  the  propo- 
sition  clearly  and   fairly,  some  term  may  need  to  be 


414  ARGUMENTATION, 

defined  by  agreement  of  both  sides.  In  the  case  of  the 
proposition,  "The  elective  system  should  be  adopted 
in  our  high  schools,"  there  would  have  to  be  an  agreed 
definition  of  the  term  "  elective  system,"  as  there  are 
many  different  systems  that  go  by  that  name.  ♦  "  Church 
property  should  be  exempt  from  taxation "  would  re- 
quire an  agreed  definition  of  the  first  two  words.  Be- 
fore agreeing  to  a  proposition,  it  is  wise  to  submit  it  to  a 
number  of  judicious  and  keen-minded  people,  including, 
if  possible,  one  who  knows  thoroughly  the  special  field 
to  which  the  proposition  belongs. 

Preparation  of  Material. 

156.  The  second  matter  of  importance  is  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  material.  This  includes,  as  a  primary 
step,  finding  out  what  to  look  for.  It  helps  wonderfully 
towards  this,  to  make  a  list  of  such  arguments  as  you 
can  think  out,  before  you  have  done  any  systematic 
reading  at  all.  Ask  yourself  the  questions,  "  What 
ought  to  be  true  if  my  side  of  the  proposition  is  true  ?  " 
"  What  do  I  need  to  find  verified  by  the  facts,  in  order 
to  prove  my  case  ?  "  "If  I  find  the  facts  to  be  as  I 
expect,  how  can  I  use  them  as  arguments?  That  is, 
What  inferences  that  will  count  can  I  draw  from  them  ?  " 
In  this  preliminary  thinking  and  planning  you  will  be 
assisted  by  talking  freely  with  others,  especially  with 
older  people,  about  the  proposition,  and  about  the  gen- 
eral subject  to  which  it  belongs.  It  will  pay  even  to 
go  so  far  as  to  make  an  orderly  brief  of  these  tentative 
arguments.  You  may  discard  this  brief  later,  but  it  will 
help  your  thinking  to  make  it.     Besides  you  will  thus 


PREPARATION  OF  MATERIAL,  415 

guard  yourself  against  adhering  too  closely  to  the  plans 
of  other  people  which  you  will  come  upon  in  your  read- 
ing. 

You  will  read  first  for  the  purpose  of  answering  the 
questions  raised  by  your  own  thinking.  While  doing 
so,  you  will  gradually  get  an  acquaintance  with  the 
whole  field  of  the  discussion.  By  letting  people  know 
what  the  proposition  is  that  you  are  working  at,  you 
will  be  referred  to  books  and  magazine  articles  on  the 
subject.  The  librarian  of  any  library  will  help  you  ; 
teachers  will  help  you,  and  so  will  your  pastor,  or  any 
lawyer  that  you  know.  Do  not  hesitate  to  write  for 
reference-lists  on  your  -proposition  to  any  one  who,  you 
think,  can  help  you,  —  a  college  president,  or  professor, 
or  editor,  for  example.  But  learn  also  to  help  yourself. 
Learn  to  use  Poole's  index,  the  card  catalogue  of  the 
nearest  library,  and  the  lists  that  are  given  .at  the  ends 
of  articles  in  the  encyclopsedias  and  in  many  text-books 
and  treatises. 

Read  as  widely  as  time  permits  and  read  on  both  sides 
of  the  proposition.  The  debater  must  know  the  best 
arguments  on  both  sides  and  how  each  argument  is 
answered. 

Note-taking  should  accompany  the  reading  at  every 
step.  It  is  economical  to  use  for  notes,  not  a  blank- 
book,  but  slips  of  paper  about  the  size  of  a  small  post- 
card ;  and  it  is  best  to  put  but  one  note  on  a  card,  mark- 
ing it  as  affirmative  or  negative.  When  the  time  comes  to 
make  the  brief,  the  notes  are  easily  rearranged  by  shift- 
ing the  cards.  It  will  save  time  to  write  accurately  on 
each  card  the  source  of  the  note.  You  may  need  to 
refer  to  it  later. 


416  ARGUMENTATION. 

The  Main  Issues  and  the  Trial  Brief. 

157.  The  few  main  points  at  issue  will  usually  dis- 
close themselves  before  the  reading  has  been  half  com- 
pleted. If  they  have  not,  the  process  of  transforming 
a  collection  of  notes  into  a  brief,  which  is  illustrated  on 
pp.  404,  405  of  this  book,  ought  to  disclose  the  three  or 
four  main  issues.  Grouping  together  the  notes  that 
belong  together,  you  take  each  group  by  itself  and  ask, 
what  does  this  group  prove  ?  The  answer  is  likely  to 
be  one  of  the  chief  arguments.  The  few  chief  argu- 
ments thus  obtained  will  prove  to  be  the  main  issues ; 
or  they  will  lead  to  the  discovery  of  these,  through  the 
disclosure  of  gaps  in  the  logic  that  will  have  to  be  filled 
by  further  reading  or  by  a  complete  reorganization  of 
the  notes.  The  main  issues  are  never  numerous.  The 
sounder  the  thinking,  the  fewer  are  the  main  issues 
discovered. 

Division  of  Labor. 

158.  As  soon  as  the  main  issues  are  discovered,  but 
not  before,  a  division  of  labor  may  be  made,  and  each 
member  of  the  team  may  be  assigned  one  of  the  issues 
to  work  up  more  thoroughly  by  reading  and  briefing. 
There  is  danger  of  beginning  the  division  of  labor  too 
early  ;  that  is,  before  each  debater  has  gained  a  general 
acquaintance  with  the  field  from  which  the  proposition 
is  taken.  It  is  desirable,  of  course,  that  division  of 
labor  should  be  made  as  early  as  possible ;  and  some 
teams  are  tempted,  by  this  consideration,  to  beg,  borrow, 
or  steal  the  statement  of  the  main  issues  from  others, 
and  apportion  them  for  individual  work  immediately 


TEAM  WORK.  ill 

after  the  proposition  is  announced,  trusting  that  each 
will  somehow  get  acquainted  with  the  whole  subject 
while  reading  for  his  own  special  part  of  it.  The  time 
that  is  seemingly  gained  by  this  is  usually  lost  later 
when  team  practice  begins.  If  each  debater  would 
begin  his  conversation,  planning,  general  reading,  and 
note-taking  promptly,  the  need  of  haste  to  divide  the 
field  would  not  be  so  urgent. 

Team  'Work. 

159.  Immediately  after  the  proposition  is  announced, 
regular  weekly  meetings  of  the  team  should  begin.  At 
the  first  few  of  these  meetings  each  should  read  his 
notes  and  call  for  criticism,  inform  the  rest  about  his 
progress,  and  announce  his  plan  of  work  for  the  next 
week.  The  members  should  help  one  another  over 
difiiculties,  suggest  reading  matter  and  references  to 
one  another,  and  above  all  bring  forward  objections 
that  have  been  discovered  to  any  argument  proposed. 
If  there  is  a  lazy  member  of  the  team,  he  should  be 
reformed  or  compelled. to  resign  before  the  work  has 
gone  far.  The  substitute  (and  every  team  should 
have  a  substitute  or  two)  should  be  treated  as  a 
member  of  the  team  and  should  work  as  if  it  were 
certain  that  he  would  have  to  be  called  into  service  in 
the  final  debate.  When  each  member  has  made  a  brief, 
showing  the  main  issues  as  he  conceives  them  to  be, 
these  individual  briefs  at  an  appointed  time  should  be 
brought  in,  compared,  criticised,  and  welded  into  a 
single  team  brief.  From  this  time  forward,  the  com- 
posite brief  having  been  made,  and  the  issues  assigned 


418  ARGUMENTATION. 

severally  to  the  members,  individual  practice  may  be- 
gin at  the  meetings. 

Individual  Practice. 

160.  This  means  that  each  member  should  come  ^to 
the  meeting  with  a  speech  on  his  part  of  the  brief,  to  be 
read  from  manuscript  and  not  to  be  memorized  until  it 
has  undergone  severe  criticism  from  the  other  members, 
and  from  some  teacher,  some  old  debater  of  the  school, 
or  some  mature  guest  who  has  been  invited  to  the  meet- 
ing with  instructions  to  interrupt  the  reading,  to  doubt, 
to  question,  and,  if  he  will,  to  rise  and  reply  to  any 
argument  that  seems  inconclusive.  After  this  process, 
the  speech  should  be  revised  and  finally  learned. 

The  Second  Team. 

161.  Meanwhile  another  team  of  the  school  has  been 
doing,  independently,  precisely  what  the  first  team  has 
been  doing,  only  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  proposition. 
Up  to  the  time  of  completing  individual  practice  it  is 
best  for  the  teams  to  see  nothing  of  one  another.  But 
when  each  member  of  both  teams  has  become  master  of 
a  set  speech,  the  teams  should  hold  frequent  meetings 
together  for  practice  debates. 

Practice  Debates. 

162.  The  first  practice  debate  should  be  preceded  by 
an  exchange  of  briefs  between  the  two  teams.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  is  to  enable  each  debater  to  introduce  new 
matter  suggested  by  a  reading  of  the  opponent's  brief. 
The  chief  purpose  of  these  practice  debates  is  training 


PRACTICE  DEBATES.  419 

in  rebuttal.  After  the  main  speeches  have  been  given 
at  two  meetings,  and  are  pretty  well  in  mind,  they  may 
be  omitted  at  some  of  the  subsequent  meetings,  that 
the  whole  time  may  be  devoted  to  the  rebuttal  speak- 
ing. This  is  the  crucial  test  of  ability  in  debate  and 
requires  the  largest  share  of  the  time  for  training. 
Successful  rebuttal  is  never  an  accident.  It  comes 
from  the  thorough  study  of  the  question,  in  the  course 
of  which  every  objection  is  discovered  and  a  way  is 
found  for  meeting  it.  For  the  well-informed  debater 
there  are  no  surprises  in  the  final  debate.  Everything 
that  really  counts  has  been  foreseen  and  provided 
against:  some  one  of  the  team  is  ready  to  answer; 
and  as  the  objections  are  brought  forward,  they  look 
like  old  friends  whose  coming  is  expected.  Each 
speaker  should  know  beforehand  what  objections  he  is 
to  attend  to  personally  and  at  the  beginning  of  his  own 
speech  if  aq  objection  has  been  made  that  is  to  be  an- 
swered by  some  other  debater,  should  not  hesitate  to  say, 
"  My  colleague  will  answer  that  objection.  I  wish  now 
to  call  attention  to  another,"  etc.  All  first  speeches, 
except  the  opening  one  on  the  affirmative,  even  if  mem- 
orized, should  be  timed  to  leave  a  margin  of  a  minute 
or  two  for  noticing  an  objection  that  has  been  raised 
just  before,  and  if  it  belongs  to  the  speaker  to  refute  it, 
the  most  effective  plan  is  to  refute  first  and  follow  the 
refutation  immediately  with  the  corresponding  direct 
argument.  But  one  should  be  economical  in  refuta- 
tion ;  one  should  not  allow  one's  intended  speech  to 
be  broken  in  pieces  by  attempting  too  much  in  the 
way  of  refutation.  It  is  sufficient  to  use  the  first 
minute    or   two   or   the   last   minute    or  two  for  this 


420  ARGUMENTATION, 

purpose.  Otherwise,  stick  to  the  speech  as  planned. 
The  first  speaker  on  the  affirmative  has  the  extra  duty 
of  explaining  the  proposition,  stating  and  defining  the 
issues,  and  thus  dividing  the  work  for  his  colleagues. 
He  will  usually  have  time  also  to  establish  one  of  the 
chief  arguments.  At  the  close  of  the  debate  he  will 
summarize  the  points  proved.  The  leader  of  the  nega- 
tive will  also  include  a  summary  in  his  final  speech  just 
preceding.  In  all  of  this  practice  work,  each  speaker 
will  also  practise  fairness  and  courtesy  to  opponents, 
especially  in  restating  the  objections  that  they  have 
raised.  He  will  try  to  keep  cool  without  losing  ear- 
nestness ;  and  will  try  to  maintain  his  earnestness  with- 
out losing  his  good  humor. 


CHAPTER  XL 

POETRY. 

Introductory. 

163.  Ruskin  says  that  poetry  is  "  the  suggestion  by 
the  imagination,  in  musical  words,  of  noble  grounds 
for  noble  emotions, — love,  veneration,  admiration,  and 
joy,  with  their  opposites."  The  poet  working  upon 
the  imagination  creates  or  awakens  in  us  new  and 
beautiful  conceptions  of  the  world. 

The  object  of  poetry  is  the  communication  of  exalted 
pleasure  ;  and  thus  the  term  poetry  implies  an  antithe- 
sis to  the  term  science^  since  the  object  of  science  is  not 
pleasure,  but  truth,  "hard  facts."  Poetry  is  usually 
expressed  in  verse,  and  science  in  prose  ;  but  not  every- 
thing that  is  written  in  verse  is  poetry,  and  poetic 
thought  is  often  found  in  prose  form. 

In  style,  poetry  is  rhythmical  and  regular  ;  that  is, 
its  preferred  form  is  verse  arranged  in  lines  of  fixed 
lengths,  composed  of  regularly  recurring  accented  and 
unaccented  syllables.  In  diction,  poetry  may  employ 
abbreviated  expressions,  picturesque  expressions,  epi- 
thets, and  archaic  words,  in  cases  in  which  these  would 
be  out  of  place  in  prose.  Poetry  frequently  takes  other 
liberties  which  would  not  be  permitted  to  prose,  —  in 
an  unusual  order  of  words  and  sentence-elements. 

The  materials  of  poetry  are  drawn  (1)  from  external 

421 


422  POETRY. 

nature,  the  sounds,  colors,  movenients,  and.  impressive- 
ness  of  which  we  are  helped  to  appreciate  by  means  of 
poetry  ;  (2)  from  human  life,  —  mane's  deeds,  emotions, 
intellectual  powers,  courage,  and  greatness. 

Poetry  deals  with  concrete  rather  than  abstract  no- 
tions ;  that  is,  if  a  poet  wishes  to  hold  up  for  our  admi- 
ration generosity,  for  instance,  he  does  this  by  detailing 
a  particular  and  beautiful  instance  of  generosity,  and 
not  by  talking  about  the  abstract  virtue  generosity  it- 
self. He  embodies  general  ideas  in  particular  images, 
and  for  this  reason  he  expresses  his  thought  largely  in 
figures,  many  of  which  owe  their  effectiveness  to  their 
concreteness. 

Kind's  of  Poetry. 

164.  Poetry  is  of  three  kinds  :  epic,  dramatic,  and 
lyric  poetry.  A  fourth  division  is  often  made  for  con- 
venience, called  didactic  poetry.  Epic  and  dramatic 
poetry  are  alike  in  one  respect :  both  embody  a  story ; 
but  they  differ  in  many  respects,  one  of  which  is  this,  — 
in  the  epic  the  poet  narrates  the  story  himself,  whereas 
in  the  drama  the  poet  himself  does  not  appear;  he 
makes  the  actors  show  what  the  story  is  by  what  they 
do  and  say. 

Epic  Poetry. 

165.  Epic  poetry  is  that  kind  in  which  the  poet  him- 
self narrates  a  story  as  if  he  were  present.  In  this 
sense,  epic  poetry  and  narrative  poetry  mean  the  same 
thing.     Epic  poetry  is  subdivided  as  follows:  — 

1.  ITie  Great  Epic, — In  this  the  poet  narrates,  in 
stately,  uniform    verse,  a  series    of   great   and    heroic 


EPIC  POETRY.  423 

events,  in  which  gods,  demigods,  and  heroes  play  the 
most  conspicuous  parts.  The  Great  Epic  (1)  has  a 
noble  theme  based  on  mythology,  legend,  or  religion, 
involving,  therefore,  a  supernatural  element ;  (2)  it  has 
a  complete  and  unified  story -plot,  the  action  of  which  is 
concentrated  in  a  short  time,  and  the  chief  events  partly 
or  wholly  under  superhuman  control  ;  (3)  it  has  a  hero, 
of  more  than  human  proportions,  and  other  characters 
human  and  divine  ;  (4)  it  is  simple  in  structure, 
smooth,  uniform,  and  metrical,  dignified  and  grave  in 
tone  ;  (5)  it  employs  dialogue,  and  may  employ  epi- 
sode, which  is  a  story  not  needed  for  the  main  plot, 
although  connected  with  some  part  of  the  action  ;  (6)  it 
enforces  no  moral  ;  the  moral  must  be  discovered  from 
the  story,  and  the  interest  centers  in  the  action. 

The  Odyssey  and  the  Iliad  are  great  epics  which 
grew  up  among  the  early  Greeks  ;  Beowulf  is  a  great 
epic  which  grew  up  among  our  remote  ancestors.  Later 
poets  who  made  great  epic  poems  are  Vergil,  who  made 
the  j^neid^  and  the  English  poet  Milton,  who  made 
Paradise  Lost. 

The  Mock  Epic  treats  of  a  trivial  subject  in  the 
heroic  style  of  the  great  epic.  An  example  is  Pope's 
Rape  of  the  Lock.  Butler's  Hudihras  is  satire  in  mock- 
epic  style. 

2.  In  the  Metrical  Romance.,  or  narrative  of  adven- 
ture (1)  the  theme  is  less  noble  and  grand  than  in  the 
great  epic,  and  the  supernatural  element,  if  occasionally 
admitted,  is  less  prominent  ;  (2)  the  action  is  less  con- 
centrated, and  the  chief  events  are  partly  or  wholly 
under  human  control ;   (3)  the  element  of  love,  which 


424  POETRY. 

is  almost  absent  in  the  great  epic,  is  conspicuous ; 
(4)  the  metre  is  less  stately,  and  the  style  more  easy 
and  familiar.  The  Romance  is  a  product  of  the  age  of 
chivalry.  Spenser's  Faery  Queene  is  an  example.  Mod- 
ern Romances  are  Scott's  Marmion  and  The  Lady  of  the 
Lake. 

3.  The  Tale  is  a  still  humbler  form  of  narrative 
poetry;  it  tells  a  complete  story,  with  love  or  humor 
predominant.  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales  and  Long- 
fellow's Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn  furnish  some  examples. 
Poe's  Maven,  Byron's  Corsair^  Burns's  Tarn  o'Shanter^ 
and  Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden  and  Dora  are  tales. 

4.  The  Ballad  is  generally  shorter  and  is  always  less 
discursive  than  the  tale;  it  tells  its  story  rapidly  and 
simply.  Ballads  were  originally  folk-songs;  like  the 
oldest  epics,  they  grew  up  among  thq  people,  and  their 
authors  are  commonly  unknown.  Chevy  Chase,  Sir 
Patrick  Spens,  the  Robin  Hood  ballads,  and  the  Battle 
of  Maldon  are  examples.  Later  poets  made  ballads: 
Campbell's  Battle  of  the  Baltic  is  a  martial  ballad; 
Whittier's  iHfai^t?  Muller,  a  love  ballad;  Coleridge's  The 
Ancient  Mariner.,  a  superstitious  ballad ;  Macaulay's 
Lays  of  Ancient  Rome  are  historical  ballads. 

5.  The  Pastoral  is  a  slightly  narrative  poem  depict- 
ing rural  life,  with  a  large  element  of  description,  but 
with  little  action.  Keats's  Endymion.,  Goldsmith's  De- 
serted Village.,  and  Thomson's  Seasons  are  examples. 

6.  The  Idyll.  — This  word  means  "a  little  picture." 
It  has  been  used  in  two  senses:  (1)  a  short  narrative 
poem  giving  little  pictures  of  simple  country  life,  quiet, 
homely  scenes,  and  appealing  to  gentle  emotions.     In 


DRAMATIC  POETRY.  425 

this  sense,  it  is  but  another  name  for  the  short  Pastoral. 
Examples  are  Longfellow's  Evangeline^  Whittier's  Snow- 
Bound.,  and  Burns's  Cotter  s  Saturday  Night.  (2)  A 
short  narrative  poem  giving  pictures  of  a  more  highly 
spectacular  life,  involving  scenes  of  action,  and  appeal- 
ing to  strong  emotions.  Such  are  Tennyson's  Idylls  of 
the  King  and  some  of  Browning's  poems. 

Dramatic  Poetry. 

166.  The  drama,  like  the  epic,  deals  with  the  past, 
but  the  drama  represents  the  past  in  the  present.  It 
exhibits  a  story  by  means  of  characters  speaking  and 
acting  in  a  series  of  situations  so  contrived  as  to  de- 
velop a  plot,  and  show  a  single  controlling  purpose. 
This  subordination  of  all  actions  to  the  controlling  pur- 
pose of  a  play  is  known  as  unity  of  action.  The  drama, 
when  enacted  on  the  stage,  employs  scenery  and  costume 
to  produce  the  impression  of  reality.  The  drama  is 
"imitated  human  action,"  but  it  does  not  imitate  a 
series  of  human  actions  exactly  as  they  occur  in  actual 
life ;  it  selects  typical  actions  and  arranges  these  with 
a  single  purpose,  as  they  might  occur.  -  The  drama  is 
divided  into  "  acts,"  usually  five  in  number,  the  earlier 
acts  exhibiting  the  causes,  starting  conflicting  lines  of 
action,  entangling  and  developing  these  to  a  climax  or 
height  of  interest  which  is  usually  reached  in  the  fourth 
act,  the  last  act  exhibiting  the  consequences  of  the 
action,  the  denouement.  The  whole  play  thus  makes  a 
complete  story. 

1.  Tragedy  (1)  deals  with  solemn  themes  showing  a 
mortal  will  at  odds  with  fate  ;     (2)  produces,  in  the 


426  POETRY. 

mind  of  the  spectator,  pity  and  terror  and  awe,  driving 
out  trivial  and  unworthy  thoughts  ;  (3)  leads  through 
a  complicated  plot  to  a  catastrophe,  the  final  overthrow 
of  the  mortal  who  has  been  either  criminal  in  his  motive 
(^Macbeth)  or  mistaken  in  his  motive  ( Othello}  ;  and 
(4)  this  catastrophe  is  foreshadowed,  is  felt  to  be  com- 
ing, and  when  it  does  come  is  felt  to  be  inevitable,  be- 
yond human  power  to  prevent.  Tragedy  prefers  verse; 
its  language  is  nobler  than  that  of  daily  life,  so  that  we 
are  not  reminded  of  common  concerns  even  by  the 
words  used,  but  live  for  the  time  in  a  higher  and  nobler 
world,  the  world  of  the  imagination.  Julius  Ccesar^ 
Lear,  Hamlet^  Romeo  and  Juliet,  are  examples.  Such  a 
play  as  the  Merchant  of  Venice,  in  which  both  tragedy 
and  comedy  are  present  in  a  subdued  form,  is  classified 
as  Reconciling  Drama. 

2.  Comedy  (1)  deals  with  lighter  themes,  with  the 
follies,  accidents,  or  humors  of  life ;  (2)  produces 
no  terror  or  pity,  but  produces  amusement  or  mirth ; 
(3)  ends  not  with  a  catastrophe,  but  brings  the  story  to 
a  conclusion  naturally  desired,  all  ending  as  we  would 
have  it ;  (4)  does  not  foreshadow  the  end,  as  tragedy 
does,  but  frequently  surprises  us  happily.  Comedy  is 
nearer  to  daily  life,  does  not  employ  verse  so  often  as 
tragedy  does,  inclines  to  prose,  and  employs  less  noble 
language.  In  Comedy  Proper,  such  as  Shakespeare's 
As  You  Like  It  and  Twelfth  Night,  Goldsmith's  She 
Stoops  to  Conquer,  and  Sheridan's  Rivals,  the  amuse- 
ment may  arise  both  from  the  characters  and  from  the 
plot  or  from  either  alone.  Comedy  Proper  does  not 
result  in  continued  peals  of  uproarious  laughter.     In 


LYRIC  POETRY,  427 

the  Farce  we  have  a  short  comedy  that  does  so  result. 
The  Farce  is  "broad"  in  its  effects,  and  consists  of  highly 
ridiculous  situations  and  greatly  exaggerated  charac- 
ters. Melodrama  introduces  music,  is  partly  spoken 
and  partly  sung  ;  in  modern  melodrama  the  scenes  are 
highly  romantic  and  sensational.  The  Mask  was  a 
kind  of  pastoral  drama  of  simple  plot,  rural,  romantic 
scenes,  and  masked  characters  (shepherds  and  shep- 
herdesses mainly),  with  some  supernatural  personages. 
Originally  it  was  largely  song  and  dance  by  masked 
characters.  Milton's  Oomus^  the  greatest  English  Mask, 
showed  to  what  perfection  the  Mask  might  be  developed, 
and  what  a  lofty  moral  tone  might  be  given  to  it.  The 
Opera  is  properly  a  kind  of  comedy  in  which  the  actors 
sing  their  parts,  the  words  having  less  importance  than 
the  music,  and  the  whole  being  of  little  literary  value. 
But  in  Grand  Opera  we  have  the  best  music  joined 
to  high  and  serious  themes  of  legendary  or  romantic 
character,  and  sometimes  the  best  poetry. 

Lyric  Poetry. 

167.  The  Lyric  is  a  poem  which  voices  the  personal 
feeling,  sentiment,  or  passion  of  the  poet  himself.  The 
word  "  lyric "  shows  that  such  poetry  was  originally 
sung  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  lyric  or  harp.  Many 
lyrics  are  still  set  to  music,  though  not  primarily  written 
to  be  sung.  (1)  The  lyric  has  to  do  with  the  inner 
feelings  of  the  poet,  not  (like  the  epic)  with  outward 
events,  and  hence  it  is  said  to  be  subjective.  (2)  The 
best  lyrics  are  sincere  and  imaginative.  (3)  Lyric  Po- 
etry expresses  itself  in  many  different  forms  of  verse  and 


428  POETRY. 

metre,  and  does  not  have  a  preferred  form,  as  the  Great 
Epic  and  the  Drama  have.  Lyric  Poetry  may  be  clas- 
sified as  follows  :  — 

1.  The  Song.  —  This  is  usually  short,  simple  in  meas- 
ure, and  divided  into  stanzas  each  complete  in  itself 
but  related  to  the  sentiment  of  the  whole.  Sacred 
songs  include  hymns,  psalms,  choruses,  and  anthems. 
Secular  songs  may  be  patriotic,  comic,  moral,  political, 
or  sentimental,  may  treat  of  war,  love,  or  death.  The 
song  is  the  simple,  natural  expression  of  the  poet's 
immediate  feeling. 

2.  The  Ode.  —  This  is  the  expression  of  intense  feel- 
ing, feeling  which  has  become  enthusiasm  in  the  poet. 
The  Ode  has  a  more  elaborate  structure  and  scheme  of 
verse  than  the  song.  It  is  not  intended  to  be  sung. 
Keats's  Ode  to  a  Nightingale,  Dryden's  Ode  to  St.  Cecilia, 
Wordsworth's  Intimations  of  Immortality/,  Sir  William 
Jones's  What  Constitutes  a  State  f  are  examples. 

3.  The  Elegy. — This  expresses  grief  mingled  with 
reflection  ;  regret  for  the  dead  is  its  usual  theme,  or 
plaintive  reflection  on  mortality.  Gray's  Elegy,  Mil- 
ton's Lycidas,  Hood's  Bridge  of  Sighs,  Shelley's  Adonais, 
Tennyson's  In  Memoriam,  are  examples.  Whittier's 
Ichahod  laments  Webster's  fall,  his  death  to  a  high 
ideal. 

4.  The  Sonnet,  —  This  is  a  short  poem  in  fixed  form, 
limited  to  fourteen  lines,  and  generally  with  a  pre- 
scribed arrangement  of  rhymes.  It  usually  deals  with 
a  single  phase  of  feeling,  but  is  sometimes  less  specific, 
and  may  be  devoted  to  description.  Milton,  Words- 
worth, Keats,.  Shakespeare,  furnish  examples. 


DIDACTIC  POETRY,  429 

5.  Dramatic  Lyric.  —  This  is  a  lyric  which  vividly 
suggests  human  action.  A  single  character,  located  by 
the  poet,  speaks  to  an  imaginary  audience,  and,  by  his 
suggestive  words,  pictures  a  scene,  the  actors,  and  what 
they  did.  To  the  imagination  of  the  reader,  it  is  as  if 
a  drama  were  being  enacted.  Browning's  The  Patriot^ 
The  Bishop  Orders  His  Tomh^  are  examples. 

6.  Simple  Lyric.  —  A  great  many  lyrics  lack  the 
specific  aims  and  characteristics  mentioned  under  the 
foregoing  heads.  They  are  simple  lyrics:  Words- 
worth's Cuckoo.,  Tennyson's  St.  Agnes'  Uve,  Burns's 
To  a  Mouse. 

Didactic  Poetry. 

168.  Epic,  dramatic,  and  lyric  poetry  aim  to  give 
refined  pleasure;  they  work  on  the  imagination  and 
the  feelings.  In  their  lower  forms,  however,  an  element 
of  instruction,  an  aim  to  teach,  an  address  to  the  intel- 
lect or  reason  sometimes  enters.  To  describe  this 
element,  the  adjective  didactic  is  used.  Spenser's 
Faery  Queene  is  a  metrical  romance  with  a  didactic 
element  expressed  in  allegory.  Wordsworth's  Excur- 
sion is  epic  in  plan  and  style,  but  is  didactic  in  much  of 
its  philosophical  reflection.  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress is  didactic  allegory  in  prose.  When  the  didactic 
becomes  too  prominent,  and  the  principal  aim  is  evi- 
dently to  teach,  the  high  title  "poetry"  is  withheld. 
Pope's  Moral  Essays  and  the  Essay  on  Man  appeal  to 
the  reason  and  intellect,  and  not  to  the  imagination  at 
all. 

Satire  assumes  the  form  of  poetry  (verse)  merely  to 
increase  its  sharpness.     Satire  aims  to  belittle  men  and 


430  POETRY. 

events,  to  expose  vice,  weakness,  folly,  and  to  effect 
political  or  social  reforms.  Examples,  Johnson's  Lon- 
don^ Butler's  Hudibras,  Lowell's  Biglow  Papers^  Dry- 
den's  MacFlecknoe  and  Absalom  and  Achitophel^  Byron's 
English  Bards  and  Scottish  Reviewers, 

169-  Assignments. 

A.  Name  your  favorite  poem.  To  which  of  the  preceding 
classes  does  it  belong  ? 

B.  Turn  over  a  volume  of  Tennyson's  poems  and  see  how  many 
examples  you  can  find  of  each  kind  of  poetry.  Make  a  complete 
list  of  them,  classifying  them  under  the  divisions  and  subdivisions 
given  above. 

C.  In  a  volume  of  Longfellow's,  or  Whittier's,  or  Bryant's 
poems  find  two  poems  the  materials  of  which  are  drawn,  respec- 
tively, from  (1)  external  nature,  (2)  human  life. 

D.  Assign  each  of  the  following  poems  to  its  proper  class : 
(1)  Bryant's  Thanatopsis ;  Holmes's  Last  Leaf,  and  Nautilus; 
Longfellow's  Golden  Legend,  Spanish  Student,  Excelsior,  Paul 
Revere,  and  Psalm  of  Life :  Whittier's  Barbara  Frietchie,  and  Tent 
on  the  Beach ;  Lowell's  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  and  The  Cathedral. 

E.  Find  in  Longfellow's  poems  examples  of  all  the  different 
varieties  of  lyric. 

F.  Select  the  lyric  of  Whittier's  (or  Bryant's,  or  Tennyson's) 
that  you  like  best.     To  which  class  does  it  belong  ? 

G.  Taking  some  tragedy  of  Shakespeare's  that  you  have  read, 
point  out  (1)  what  its  theme  is,  (2)  whose  "  mortal  will "  is  repre- 
sented as  "  at  odds  with  fate,"  (3)  in  what  part  of  the  play  you 
feel  pity  and  terror,  and  (4)  for  what  characters  you  have  such 
feelings. 

H.  Is  Shakespeare's  Taming  of  the  Shrew  farce  or  comedy 
proper?  To  which  of  these  two  classes  does  Goldsmith's  The  Good- 
Natured  Man  belong  ? 

I.    Could  the  story  of  Marmion  be  used  for  a  tragedy  ? 


VEBSIFICATION.  431 


Versification. 


170.  Versification  is  the  art  of  making  verses;  it 
deals  with  the  mechanical  side  of  poetry.  In  reading 
poetry  aloud  we  notice  a  regular  recurrence  of  accented 
and  unaccented  syllables.  This  is  called  rhythm. 
Prose  has  rhythm,  but  prose  rhythm  is  not  so  regular  and 
uniform.  Metre  is  the  measure  of  rhythm.  The  smal- 
lest recurring  combination  of  accented  and  unaccented 
syllables  is  called  a  foot.  The  smallest  recurring  com- 
bination of  feet  is  called  a  verse.  A  verse  is  a  line  of 
poetry.  The  number  of  feet  in  English  verse  varies 
from  one  to  eight.  The  number  of  feet  in  a  line  of 
verse  determines  its  metre ;  the  kind  of  foot  employed 
determines  the  rhythm. 

The  principal  feet  occurring  in  English  verse  are 
dissyllabic  and  trisyllabic.  Dissyllabic  feet  are  (1)  the 
Iambus^  consisting  of  an  unaccented  followed  by  an 
accented  syllable,  as  suppose ;  it  is  the  favorite  foot  in 
English  poetry.  (2)  The  Trochee,  consisting  of  an 
accented  followed  by  an  unaccented  syllable,  as  mdrn- 
ing.  Trisyllabic  feet  are  (1)  the  Dactyl,  consisting  of 
an  accented  syllable  followed  by  two  unaccented,  as 
Sdify ;  (2)  the  Anapest,  consisting  of  two  unaccented 
syllables  followed  by  one  accented,  as  persevSre.  A 
foot  may  take  in  parts  of  two  words.  The  accent  of  a 
foot  coincides  with  the  English  word-accent. 

Metre  is  doubly  named  ;  first  from  the  kind  of  foot ; 
secondly,  from  the  number  of  feet  in  the  line.  Thus  a 
line  of  one  iambic  foot  is  called  iambic  monometer ;  of 
two  iambic  feet,  iambic  dimeter;  of  three  iambic  feet, 
iambic  trimeter;  of  four  iambic  feet,  iambic  tetrameter. 


432  POETRY, 

In  the  following  examples  we  use  ^^  to  indicate  an 
unaccented  syllable,  and  '  to  indicate  an  accented  syl- 
lable.    The  vertical  lines  mark  off  the  feet. 

I  know  I  a  maid  |  en  fair  |  to  see,  (iambic  tetrameter) 

Take  care  !  (iambic  monometer) 

She  can  |  both  false  |  and  friend  |  ly  be,  (iambic  tetrameter) 
Beware  !  |  Beware  !  (iambic  dimeter) 

His  hair  |  is  crisp  |  and  black  |  and  long,  (iambic  tetrameter) 
His  face  |  is  like  |  the  tan       (iambic  trimeter) 

A  line  of  five  iambic  feet  is  called  iambic  pentameter. 
It  is  also  known  as  heroic  measure. 

We  live  |  in  deeds,  |  not  years :  |  in  thoughts,  |  not  breaths. 

A  line  of  six  iambic  feet  is  called  iambic  hexameter. 
It  is  also  known  as  Alexandrine  measure. 

The  things  |  which  I  |  have  seen  |  I  now  |  can  see  |  no  more. 

A  line  of  seven  iambic  feet  is  called  iambic  heptameter. 
Now  gio  I  ry  to  I  the  Lord  |  of  Hosts  |  from  whom  |  all 
glo  I  ries  are. 

A  line  of  eight  iambic  feet  is  called  iambic  octameter. 
O  all  I  ye  peo  |  pie,  clap  |  your  hands  |  and  with  |  trium  | 
phant  voi  |  ces  sing. 

The  words  monometer.,  dimeter.,  trimeter.^  tetrameter., 
etc.,  are  also  used  with  the  adjectives  trochaic,  dactylic, 
and  andpestic,  to  tell  how  many  trochaic,  dactylic,  or 
anapestic  feet  there  are  in  a  line.  The  following  illus- 
trate some  of  these  :  — 


(trochaic  dimeter) 


VERSIFICATION.  433 

Do  not  I  shoot  me,  |  Hi  a  |  wa  tha !    (trochaic  tetrameter) 
Like  a  |  high-born  |  maiden  (trochaic  trimeter) 

Turning 

Burning      \   (trochaic  monometer) 
Changing 

Once  up  I  on  a    midnight  |  dreary  |  as  I  |  pondered  |  weak 

and  I  weary  (trochaic  octameter) 

Fancy  |  viewing 

Joys  en  |  suing 

There's  a  bliss  |  beyond  all  |  that  the  min  |  strel  has  told 

(anapestic  tetrameter) 

And   we   came  |  to  the   Bonn  |  teous   Isle  |  where  the 
heav  I  ens  lean  low  |  on  the  land  (anapestic  hexameter) 
Touch  her  not  |  scornfully       (dactylic  dimeter) 
Think  of  her  |  mournfully  (dactylic  dimeter) 

This  is  the  |  forest  pri  |  meval ;  the  |  murmuring  |  pines 

and  the  |  hemlocks  (dactylic  hexameter,  last 

foot  incomplete) 

Separating  lines  into  the  feet  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed (as  we  have  been  doing)  is  called  Scansion. 
Each  line  that  we  have  scanned  has  consisted  of  only 
one  kind  of  foot.  Such  lines  are  called  Pure.  Some 
lines  show  two  kinds  of  feet.  Such  lines  are  said  to  be 
Mixed. 

One  of  I  those  lit  |  tie  pi  a  |  ces  that  |  have  run 

(first  foot,  trochee ;  the  rest  iambic) 
Meanwhile  a  |  mid  the  |  gloom  by  the  |  church  E  |  vangeline  | 
lingered. 


434  POETRY. 

In  this  last,  the  second,  fourth,  and  sixth  feet  are 
trochees,  and  the  rest  are  dactyls.  The  line  is  mixed 
trochaic  and  dactylic  hexameter. 

Whene'er  |  is  spo  |  ken  a  no  \  ble  thought 

(third  foot,  anapest;  the  rest,  iambic) 

Frequently  a  line  is  incomplete^  an  unaccented  syllable 
(most  often  at  the  end)  being  missing,  its  place  being 
supplied  by  a  pause. 

In  the  I  market  |  place  of  |  Bruges  |  stands  the  |  belfry  | 
old  and  |  brown  . 

This  line  is  trochaic  octameter,  the  last  foot  incom- 
plete. 

Gold  !^  Gold  r\  Gold  !^|  Gold !  ^  (each  foot  incomplete) 
Bright  and  |  yellow,  \  hard  and  i;  cold 

(last  foot  incomplete) 
Listen  my  |  children  and  |  you  shall  |  hear 

(mixed ;  and  last  foot  incomplete) 

Pauses  occur  naturally  in  verse  as  in  prose  ;  the  chief 
pause  (if  there  is  one)  occurring  in  the  body  of  a  line 
is  called  the  ccesura.  It  may  divide  a  foot,  and  does 
not  usually  come  at  the  same  place  in  successive  lines. 
In  the  following  examples  we  use  double  vertical  lines 
to  mark  the  csesura  :  — 

Build  me  |  straight,  ||  0  |  worthy  |  Master ! 

(dividing  a  foot) 

0  lyr  I  ic  Love !  ||  half-an  |  gel  and  |  half-bird 

(not  dividing  a  foot) 


VERSIFICATION.  435 

The  number  of  syllables  and  the  length  of  time  re- 
quired to  pronounce  the  separate  syllables  affect  the 
rhythm  of  a  line,  in  a  marked  degree.  Long  syllables 
predominating^  produce  the  effect  of  slowness  ;  short 
syllables,  the  effect  of  hurry  and  liveliness. 

Alone,  alone,  all,  all  alone. 
Alone  on  a  wide,  wide  sea ! 

I  sprang  to  the  stirrup,  and  Joris,  and  he ; 

I  galloped,  Dirck  galloped,  we  galloped  all  three. 

Rhyme  is  correspondence  of  sound.  It  is  most 
readily  seen  at  the  end  of  lines,  but  occurs  also  within 
the  lines.  It  is  assonantal  when  the  vowels  alone  cor- 
respond, in  the  rhyming  syllables.  It  is  consonantal 
when  the  final  consonants  also  correspond.  In  the  fol- 
lowing, thou  2indi  now  are  assonantal;  last  and ^as^  are 
consonantal  also. 

Yet  did  I  love  thee  to  the  last 

As  fervently  as  tliou, 
Who  didst  not  change  through  all  the  past, 

And  canst  not  alter  now. 

Rhyme  is  seen  within  the  first  and  third  lines  of  the 
following  :  — 

I  bring  fresh  showers  for  the  thij^^ting  flowers 

From  the  seas  and  the  streams ; 
I  bear  light  shade  for  the  leaves  when  laid 

In  their  noonday  dreams. 

Alliteration,  a  kind  of  rhyme,  is  the  recurrence,  at 
short  intervals,  of  the  same  initial  consonant. 

And  thistles,  and  nettles,  and  c?arnels  rank, 

And  the  c?ock,  and  the  henbane ;  and  hemlock  dank. 


436  POETRY. 

Blank  verse  is  verse  without  rhyme.  In  its  perfect 
form  it  is  a  continuous  metre  of  iambic  pentameter 
lines.  It  is  the  most  elevated  and  dignified  measure, 
and  is  used  for  the  high  themes  of  epic  and  drama. 
Read  Portia's  "  The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strained," 
etc. 

A  stanza  is  part  of  a  poem  consisting  of  a  group  of 
lines  arranged  according  to  a  definite  plan.  Stanzas 
of  the  same  poem  are  usually  constructed  alike. 

Two  consecutive  rhyming  lines  constitute  a  couplet ; 
a  couplet  is  not  usually  referred  to  as  a  stanza.  Three 
consecutive  lines  (usually,  but  not  always,  rhyming 
together)  constitute  a  Triplet  or  Tercet. 

A  stanza  of  four  lines  rhyming  alternately  or  other- 
wise is  called  a  Quatrain.  A  quatrain  of  four  iambic 
pentameters  with  alternate  rhyme  is  called  Elegiac 
Stanza,  See  Gray's  Elegy.  A  quatrain  of  four  iambic 
tetrameters  is  called  Long  Metre. 

Awake,  my  soul,  and  with  the  sun 
Thy  daily  stage  of  duty  run ; 
Shake  off  dull  sloth,  and  early  rise 
To  pay  the  morning  sacrifice. 

A  quatrain  of  four  iambic  trimeters  with  an  addi- 
tional foot  in  the  third  line  is  called  Short  Metre. 

The  world  can  never  give 

The  bliss  for  which  we  sigh : 
'Tis  not  the  whole  of  life  to  live, 

Nor  all  of  death  to  die. 

A  quatrain  of  four  iambic  tetrameters  alternating 
with  three  is  called  Common  Metre  or  Ballad  Metre 
(because  a  favorite  in  ballads). 


VERSIFICATION.  437 

When  all  Thy  mercies,  0  my  God, 

My  rising  soul  surveys, 
Transported  with  the  view,  I'm  lost 

In  wonder,  love,  and  praise. 

Long,  short,  and  common  metre  are  the  favorite  hymn- 
stanzas.  Five-line  stanzas  (Shelley's  To  a  Skylark} 
and  six-line  stanzas  (Longfellow's  The  Village  Black- 
smith) are  also  used.  The  seven-line  stanza  of  iambic 
pentameter  is  called  Chaucerian  stanza  (because  used  by 
Chaucer),  or  Rhyme  Royal  (because  adopted  by  King 
James  I  of  Scotland).  In  this  the  first  four  lines  are 
an  alternately  rhyming  quatrain ;  the  fifth  line  rhymes 
with  the  fourth,  and  the  last  two  lines  form  a  couplet. 
Ottava  Rima  is  an  eight-line  stanza  of  iambic  pentameter, 
the  first  six  lines  rhyming  alternately,  the  last  two  lines 
forming  a  couplet  (Byron's  Don  Juan).  The  Spenserian 
stanza^  invented  by  the  author  of  the  Faery  Queene,  con- 
sists of  nine  lines,  the  first  eight  being  iambic  pentameters, 
and  the  ninth  an  Alexandrine  (iambic  hexameter)  ;  the 
first  and  third  lines  rhyming  together  ;  also  the  second, 
fourth,  fifth,  and  seventh  ;  also  the  sixth,  eighth,  and 
ninth.  Burns  used  this  stanza  in  the  Cotter's  Saturday 
Night. 

A  canto  consists  of  a  number  of  stanzas  which  together 
make  up  a  natural  division  of  a  long  poem.  Scott's 
Lady  of  the  Lake  has  six  cantos. 

The  Sonnet  is  a  lyric  of  fourteen  iambic  pentameter 
lines  arranged  according  to  a  prescribed  order  of  rhyme, 
and  usually  restricted  to  the  expression  of  a  single 
sentiment.  Mr.  R.  W.  Gilder  shows  the  strict  order 
of  rhymes  in  the  following  ;  the  column  of  letters  to  the 
right  indicating  the  scheme  of  end-rhymes  :  — 


438  POETRY. 


m 


^^ 


What  is  a  sonnet  ?     'Tis  a  pearly  shell  a 

That  murmurs  of  the  far-off  murmuring  sea,  h 

A  precious  jewel  carved  most  curiously;  h 

It  is  a  little  picture  painted  well.  a 

What  is  a  sonnet  ?     'Tis  the  tear  that  fell  a 

From  a  great  poet's  hidden  ecstasy ;  h 

A  two-edged  sword,  a  star,  a  song  —  ah  me  !  h 

Sometimes  a  heavy-tolling  funeral  bell.  a 

This  was  the  flame  that  shook  with  Dante's  breath,  c 

The  solemn  organ  whereon  Milton  played,  d 

And  the  clear   glass   where   Shakespeare's 

shadow  falls :  e 

A  sea  this  is  —  beware  who  ventureth !  c 

For  like  a  fiord  the  narrow  floor  is  laid  d 

Deep  as  mid-ocean  to  sheer  mountain  walls.  e 

Sonnet  writers  do  not  hold  uniformly  to  this  scheme 
of  rhyme-order.  Wyatt,  Surrey,  Shakespeare,-  Milton, 
and  other  sonneteers  since  their  time,  show  a  variety 
in  the  number  and  ord6r  of  rhymes. 

171.  Assignments. 

A.  Name  the  poem  you  like  best.  In  what  metre  is  it  written  ? 
Scan  the  first  four  lines. 

B.  Open  at  random  a  volume  of  Longfellow's  poems.  Scan 
the  first  stanza  of  four  successive  poems.     Name  the  metres. 

C.  What  was  Poe's  favorite  metre?  Bryant's?  Thackeray's? 
Emerson's?   Pope's? 

D.  How  many  different  kinds  of  metre  can  you  find  in  the 
poems  in  this  book  ? 


CHAPTER   XII. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 


Definition. 

172.  A  figure  of  speech  is  a  form  of  expression  which 
departs  widely  and  strikingly  in  certain  specified  ways 
from  what  is  literal,  straightforward,  and  matter-of-fact. 

The  ways  must  be  specified,  otherwise  there  Avill  be 
no  distinction  between  figurative  language  and  language 
that  is  simply  picturesque  or  imaginative.  When 
Shakespeare  says,  for  example  :  — 

'^  I  saw  a  smith  stand  with  his  hammer,  thus, 
The  whilst  his  iron  did  on  the  anvil  cool. 
With  open  mouth  swallowing  a  tailor's  news," 

the  entire  passage  departs  widely  and  strikingly  from 
what  is  plain,  literal,  and  matter-of-fact,  yet  only  the 
last  line,  because  it  contains  the  word  "  swallowing," 
would  ordinarily  be  called  figurative. 

The  names  of  the  most  common  figures  are  as 
follows :  — 


1.  Metaphor. 

2.  Simile. 

3.  Synecdoche. 

4.  Metonymy. 

5.  Personification.    10.  Anticlimax 

439 


6.  Apostrophe.  11.  Irony. 

7.  Allegory.  12.  Epigram. 

8.  Antithesis.  13.  Hyperbole. 

9.  Climax.  14.  Interrogation. 


440  FIGURES   OF  SPEECH. 

Classes  of  Figures. 

173.  These  figures  fall  naturally  into  the  following 
groups  :  — 

1.  Figures  of  Imagery,  —  In  this  class  may  be  placed 
figurative  expressions  which  differ  from  the  literal  in 
that  they  arouse  in  the  mind  of  the  reader  vivid  images 
of  things.  Metaphor,  simile,  synecdoche,  metonymy, 
personification,  apostrophe,  and  allegory  may  be  as- 
signed to  this  division. 

2.  Figures  of  Arrangement.  —  These  are  figures  in 
which  there  is  some  peculiar  and  striking  arrangement 
of  words,  phrases,  clauses,  or  sentences  corresponding 
to  some  peculiar  succession  of  ideas  in  th^  mind.  The 
figures  —  if  they  may  be  called  figures  —  which  fall 
under  this  head  are  antithesis  and  climax. 

3.  Figures  of  Contradiction.  —  This  term,  in  default 
of  a  better,  may  be  applied  to  forms  of  expression  in 
which  there  is  an  apparent  contradiction  between  the 
thought  to  be  expressed  and  the  form  in  which  it  finds 
expression.  Here  belong  anticlimax  (in  the  good 
sense),  irony,  epigram,  hyperbole,  and  interrogation. 
Hyperbole,  however,  may  be  classed  also  as  a  figure  of 
imagery. 

These  three  groups  will  be  taken  up  in  order,  and 
the  separate  figures  defined  and  illustrated. 

Figures  of  Imagery. 

174.  Metaphor.  —  A  metaphor  is  an  expression  in 
which  one  object  is  spoken  of  under  the  image  of  another. 

Thus  a  gust  of  wind  which  heralds  a  storm  may  be 


FIGURES   OF  IMAGERY.  441 

spoken  of  under  the  image  of  a  frightened  man,  as  in 
the  following  from  Lowell's  Summer  Storm :  — 

Now  leaps  the  wind  on  the  sleepy  marsn, 
And  tramples  the  grass  with  terrified  feet. 

Or  the  stars  may  be  spoken  of  under  the  image  of 
flowers  as  in  Longfellow's  Evangeline :  — 

Silently  one  by  one  in  the  infinite  meadows  of  heaven 
Blossomed  the  lovely  stars,  the  forget-me-nots  of  the  angels. 

Or  the  operations  of  the  memory  may  be  spoken  of 
under  the  image  of  the  resurrection :  — 

His  (Milton's)  poetry  acts  like  an  incantation.  Its  merit 
lies  less  in  its  obvious  meaning  than  in  its  occult  power,  and 
there  would  seem  at  first  sight  to  be  no  more  in  his  words 
than  in  other  words.  But  they  are  words  of  enchantment. 
No  sooner  are  they  pronounced  than  the  past  is  present  and 
the  distant  near.  New  forms  of  beauty  start  at  once  into 
existence,  and  all  the  burial-places  of  the  memory  give  up 
their  dead.  —  Macaulay  :  Essay  on  Milton. 

Simile.  —  In  the  simile  an  object  is  represented  to 
the  imagination  as  being  like  some  other  object,  or  as 
acting  like  some  other  object. 

In  the  following  passage  from  Wordsworth,  the  even- 
ing is  represented  as  being  like  a  nun  at  her  devotions:  — 

The  holy  time  is  quiet  as  a  nun 
Breathless  with  adoration. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  compared  his  discoveries  in  science 
to  the  actions  of  a  child  picking  up  pebbles  on  the 
beach :  — 

I  do  not  know  what  I  may  appear  to  the  world ;  but  to 
myself  I  seem  to  have  been  only  like  a  boy  playing  on  the 


442  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

seashore,  and  diverting  myself  in  now  and  then  finding  a 
smoother  pebble  or  a  prettier  shell  than  ordinary,  while  the 
great  ocean  of  truth  lay  all  undiscovered  before  me. 

Other  examples  are  :  — 

A  fellow  that  makes  no  figure  in  company,  and  has  a 
mind  as  narrow  as  the  neck  of  a  vinegar-cruet. 
—  Johnson  :   Tour  to  the  Hebrides,  September  30,  1773. 

As  cold  waters  to  a  thirsty  soul,  so  is  good  news  from  a 
far  country.  — ■  Proverbs  xxv,  25. 

Dryden's  imagination  resembled  an  ostrich.  It  enabled 
him  to  run,  but  not  to  soar.  —  Macaulay:  Essay  on  Dryden. 

Cautions  on  the  use  of  Metaphor  and  Simile.  —  Per- 
sons who  are  learning  to  write  are  especially  liable  to 
error  in  the  use  of  these  two  classes  of  figures.  The 
following  cautions  may  therefore  be  useful :  — 

1.  Figures  —  striking  figures  at  any  rate  —  are  not 
essential  to  a  good  prose  style.  Many  eminent  writers 
dispense  with  them  almost  entirely. 

2.  The  only  recipe  for  producing  good  figures  is  for 
the  pupil  to  become  deeply  interested  in  his  subject.  If 
his  mind  is  given  to  producing  figurative  images,  the  im- 
ages will  come  unsolicited.  If  such  images  do  not  come 
of  themselves,  it  is  better  to  get  on  without  them. 

3.  In  revising  his  written  work,  the  pupil  should 
take  care  that  figurative  expressions  meet  the  following 
requirements :  — 

a.  Figures  should  be  fresh  and  unhackneyed.  If  an 
image  occurs  that  has  been  used  a  great  many  times 
before,  consider  whether  the  reader  is  likely  to  get  any 
pleasure  from  it  when  he  comes  upon  it  again. 


FIGURES   OF  IMAGERY.  443 

b.  Figures  should  grow  naturally  out  of  the  subject 
and  be  appropriate  to  the  purpose  for  which  one  is 
writing.  The  image  of  "something  else  "  should  differ 
from  and  yet  curiously  and  significantly  resemble  the 
thing  or  idea  that  it  pictures.  The  following  passage 
from  Macaulay  contains  an  example  of  a  metaphor  that 
is  good  and  a  metaphor  that  is  bad  in  this  respect  :  — 

The  works  of  Milton  cannot  be  comprehended  or  enjoyed 
unless  the  mind  of  the  reader  cooperate  with  that  of  the 
writer.  He  does  not  paint  a  finished  picture  or  play  for  a 
mere  passive  listener.  He  sketches,  and  leaves  others  to  fill 
up  the  outline.  He  strikes  the  key-note  and  expects  his 
hearer  to  make  out  the  melody. 

The  image  of  a  painter  sketching  a  picture  and  leav- 
ing us  to  fill  up  the  outline  is  natural  and  appropriate. 
We  see  at  once  its  resemblance  to  the  mode  of  writing 
employed  by  Milton.  But  the  image  of  a  musician 
striking  a  key-note  and  expecting  his  hearers  to  make 
out  the  melody  is  highly  absurd.  No  musician  would 
do  such  a  thing,  and,  even  if  he  should,  his  act  would 
have  no  resemblance  to  Milton's  poetry. 

c.  Images  of  things  that  are  familiar  are  easier  to 
apprehend  than  images  of  things  that  are  unfamiliar. 
"His  voice  has  an  odd  note  in  it  like  the  cry  of  a 
whaup  "  does  not  mean  very  much  to  persons  brought 
up  in  America,  because  few  of  them  have  heard  a 
whaup  cry.  The  following,  however,  appeals  to  every 
one.  "  Innumerable  tawny  and  yellow  leaves  skimmed 
along  the  pavement,  and  stole  through  people's  door- 
ways into  their  passages,  with  a  hesitating  scratch  on 
the  floor,  like  the  skirts  of  timid  visitors." 


444  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH, 

d.  In  the  heat  of  composition  two  or  more  images 
are  sometimes  jumbled  together  in  a  metaphor  in  such 
a  way  as  to  be  ridiculous.  "  The  strong  arm  of  the 
law  is  marching  through  the  land  breathing  fire  and 
sword"  is  an  example  of  such  a  jumble.  A  similar 
effect  is  produced  when  the  reader  passes  too  suddenly 
from  metaphor  to  literal  statement,  as  in  "  Appearing 
above  the  horizon  like  a  new  and  resplendent  luminary, 
he  entered  Parliament  the  following  year. "  If  the  pupil 
is  given  to  these  faults,  he  should,  in  his  revision,  scan 
each  metaphor  closely,  asking  himself  such  questions  as 
these  :  "  Is  there  any  confusion  of  images  here  ?'^' 
"  Will  this  metaphor  make  my  readers  laugh  when  I 
do  not  want  them  to  laugh  ?  " 

e.  Beware  of  drawing  figures  out  to  tedious  length, 
as  in  the  following  :  "  With  the  rope  of  his  genius  he 
let  the  bucket  of  imagination  down  into  the  well  of 
human  nature  and  drew  it  up  brimming  over  with  wit 
and  humor." 

Synecdoche  and  Metonymy.  —  These  are  varieties  of 
metaphor  in  which  the  image  chosen  to  represent  the 
object  is  something  closely  connected  with  it.  In 
synecdoche  the  image  may  be  related  to  the  object  as  a 
part  to  a  whole,  or  as  a  whole  to  a  part ;  as  the  genus 
to  the  species,  or  as  the  species  to  the  genus.  The  ma- 
terial may  be  used  for  the  thing  made,  a  quality  for  the 
object  possessing  the  quality,  and  so  on. 

In  the  following  passage  from  Shakespeare's  Antony 
and  Cleopatra^  the  word  "  sail "  —  a  part  of  a  ship  —  is 
used  for  the  ship  itself  :  — 

I  have  sixty  sails,  Caesar  none  better. 


FIGURES   OF  IMAGERY.  446 

In  this  from  Henry  the  Fourth^  — 

I  have  procured  thee,  Jack,  a  charge  of  foot, 

the  word  " foot "  is  used  for  "foot-soldiers."  In  the 
following,  the  word  "  blue  "  —  a  quality  of  the  sky  —  is 
used  for  the  sky  itself :  — 

I  came  and  sat 
Below  the  chestnuts  when  their  buds        * 
Were  glistening  in  the  breezy  blue. 

—  Tennyson  :   The  Miller's  Daughter. 

The  use  of  an  individual  name  to  designate  a  class  is 
illustrated  in  the  following  :  — 

Most  facts  are  very  soon  forgotten,  but  not  the  noblest 
Shakespeare  or  Homer  of  them  can  be  remembered  forever. 

—  Carlyle. 

This  last  variety  of  synecdoche  is  sometimes  termed 
antonomasia. 

In  metonymy  the  image  used  to  represent  the  object 
is  an  accompaniment  of  it,  as  for  example,  what  con- 
tains it,  what  causes  it,  what  stands  for  it,  etc. 

In  the  following  example,  "  breath,"  the  accompani- 
ment and  cause  of  words,  is  used  in  the  sense  of  words:  — 
Princes  and  lords  may  flourish  or  may  fade,  — 
A  breath  can  make  them  as  a  breath  has  made. 

^  Goldsmith  :   The  Deserted  Village. 

In  the  following,  "  the  sceptre,"  the  accompaniment  of 
kings  and  sign  of  their  power,  is  used  in  the  sense  of 
kings,  "  learning  "  in  the  sense  of  learned  men,  "  physic  " 
in  the  sense  of  physicians :  — 

The  sceptre,  learning,  physic  must 
All  follow  this,  and  come  to  dust. 

—  Shakespeare  :  Cymbeline. 


446  FIGURES   OF  SPEECH. 

The  distinction  between  synecdoche  and  metonymy  is 
disregarded  by  many  rhetoricians  as  being  trivial  and 
conventional. 

Two  common  literary  forms  may  be  classed  under  the 
head  of  allegory  ;  namely,  the  fable  and  the  parable.  A 
fable  is,  in  popular  speech,  a  short  pointed  allegory  in 
which  animals  are  introduced  as  speaking  and  acting 
like  human  beings.  A  parable  is  a  short  allegory,  but 
the  term  is  now  used  solely  of  the  biblical  stories,  or  of 
allegories  framed  after  them. 

175.     Assignments  on  Figures  of  Imagery. 

A.  How  many  figures  in  the  following  selection  ?     Name  them. 

Kow  blessings  light  on  him  that  first  invented  this  same 
sleep !  It  covers  a  man  all  over,  thoughts  and  all,  like  a 
cloak;  it  is  meat  for  the  hungry,  drink  for  the  thirsty,  heat 
for  the  cold,  and  cold  for  the  hot.  It  is  the  current  coin 
that  purchases  all  the  pleasures  of  the  world  cheap,  and  the 
balance  that  sets  the  king  and  the  shepherd,  the  fool  and 
the  wise  man,  "even.  —  Cervantes. 

B.  Look  for  the  figures  in  the  following  selections  and  name 
them.  Which  figure  pleases  you  most?  What  kind  of  figure  is 
it?  Express  the  same  idea  in  a  plain  statement.  Which  seems  to 
you  the  more  forcible  —  the  figure  or  the  plain  statement?  Which 
seems  the  most  accurate  ? 

J.  H.,  one  of  those  choice  poets  who  will  not  tarnish 
their  bright  fancies  by  publication,  always  insists  on  a  snow- 
storm as  essential  to  the  true  atmosphere  of  whist.  Mrs. 
Battle,  in  her  famous  rule  for  the  game,  implies  winter,  and 
would  doubtless  have  added  tempest,  if  it  could  be  had  for 
the  asking.  For  a  good  solid  read  also,  into  the  small 
hours,   there  is  nothing  like  that   sense  of   safety  against 


FIGURES   OF  IMAGERY.  447 

having  your  evening  laid  waste,  which  Euroclydon  brings, 
as  he  bellows  down  the  chimney,  making  your  fire  gasp,  or 
rustles  snowflakes  against  the  pane  with  a  sound  more  sooth- 
ing than  silence.  Emerson,  as  he  is  apt  to  do,  not  only  hit 
the  nail  on  the  head,  but  drove  it  home,  in  that  last  phrase 
of  the  "tumultuous  privacy." 

Gower  has  positively  raised  tediousness  to  the  precision 
of  science,  he  has  made  dulness  an  heirloom  for  the  students 
of  our  literary  history.  As  you  slip  to  and  fro  on  the  frozen 
levels  of  his  verse,  which  give  no  foothold  to  the  mind,  as 
your  nervous  ear  awaits  the  inevitable  recurrence  of  his 
rhyme,  regularly  pertinacious  as  the  tick  of  an  eight-day 
clock  and  reminding  you  of  Wordsworth's 

"  Once  more  the  ass  did  leno^then  out 
The  hard,  dry  seesaw  of  his  horrible  bray," 

you  learn  to  dread,  almost  to  respect,  the  powers  of  this  inde- 
fatigable man.  He  is  the  undertaker  of  the  fair  mediaeval 
legend,  and  his  style  has  the  hateful  gloss,  the  seemingly 
unnatural  length,  of  a  coffin.  Love,  beauty,  passion,  nature, 
art,  life,  the  natural  and  theological  virtues,  —  there  is 
nothing  beyond  his  power  to  disenchant,  nothing  out  of 
which  the  tremendous  hydraulic  press  of  his  allegory  (or 
whatever  it  is,  for  I  am  not  sure  if  it  be  not  something  even 
worse)  will  not  squeeze  all  feeling  and  freshness  and  leave 
it  a  juiceless  pulp.  It  matters  not  where  you  try  him, 
whether  his  story  be  Christian  or  pagan,  borrowed  from  his- 
tory or  fable,  you  cannot  escape  him.  Dip  in  at  the  middle 
or  the  end,  dodge  back  to  the  beginning,  the  patient  old 
man  is  there  to  take  you  by  the  button  and  go  on  with  his 
imperturbable  narrative.  You  may  have  left  off  with  Cly- 
temnestra,  and  you  begin  again  with  Samson ;  it  makes  no 
odds,  for  you  cannot  tell  one  from  tother.  His  tediousness 
is  omnipresent,  and  like  Dogberry  he  could  find  in  his  heart 
to  bestow  it  all  (and  more  if  he  had  it)  on  your  worship. 


448  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

The  word  lengthy  has  been  charged  to  our  American  account, 
but  it  must  have  been  invented  by  the  first  reader  of  Gower's 
works,  the  only  inspiration  of  which  they  were  ever  capable. 
Our  literature  had  to  lie  by  and  recruit  for  more  than  four 
centuries  ere  it  could  give  us  an  equal  vacuity  in  Tupper,  so 
persistent  a  uniformity  of  commonplace  in  the  Recreations 
of  a  Country  Parson.  Let  us  be  thankful  that  the  indus- 
trious Gower  never  found  time  for  recreation. 

C.  Does  the  following  passage  contain  a  figure  ?  If  so,  what 
is  it  ?    If  there  is  a  figure,  do  you  think  it  is  a  good  one  ?    Why  ? 

The  actual  ether  which  fills  space  is  so  elastic  that  the 
slightest  possible  distortion  produced  by  the  vibration  of  a 
single  atom  sends  a  shudder  through  it  with  inconceivable 
rapidity  for  billions  and  billions  of  miles.  This  shudder  is 
Light. 

Figures  of  Arrangement. 
176.  Antithesis.  — This  term  is  applied  to  a  sentence 
or  part  of  a  sentence  in  which  corresponding  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses  are  set  over  against  one  another  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  contrasting  ideas  conspicuous. 
The  term  is  also  used  of  contrasting  sentences,  or  even 
of  contrasting  paragraphs. 

The  hearing  ear  is  always  found  close  to  the  speaking 
tongue. — Emerson:  English  Traits. 

Demosthenes  told  Phocian,  "  The  Athenians  will  kill  you 
some  day  when  they  are  in  a  rage."     "  And  you,"  said  he, 
"if  they  are  once  in  their  senses."  —  Plutarch. 
Our  very  hopes  belied  our  fears, 
Our  fears  our  hopes  belied ; 
We  thought  her  dying  when  she  slept. 
And  sleeping  when  she  died. 

—  Hood  :   The  Death-bed. 


ASSIGNMENTS.  449 

There  is  sometimes  antithesis  of  form  without  true 
antithesis  of  thought.  This  is  called  false  antithesis, 
and  should  be  avoided. 

Climax,  —  A  speaker  is  said  to  employ  climax  when 
a  series  of  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  is  so  arranged  that 
each  in  turn  surpasses  the  preceding  one  in  intensity  of 
expression,  or  importance  of  meaning.  The  term  may 
also  be  used  of  a  series  of  sentences  or  of  a  series  of 
paragraphs  similarly  arranged. 

Some  are  born  great,  some  achieve  greatness,  and  some 
have  greatness  thrust  upon  'em. 

—  Shakespeare  :   Twelfth  Night. 

An  unimportant,  wandering,  sorrow-stricken  man. 

What  a  chimera,  then,  is  man !  What  a  novelty,  what  a 
monster,  what  a  chaos,  what  a  subject  of  contradiction,  what 
a  prodigy  !  —  Pascal. 

When  a  weaker  idea  follows  a  stronger,  the  result  is 
bathos,  or  anticlimax  (in  the  bad  sense). 

Mr.  Judson  was  an  able  lawyer,  a  shrewd  diplomat,  and 
a  first-rate  after-dinner  speaker. 

For  another  use  of  the  term  anticlimax,  see  §  178. 

177.  Assignments. 

A.  Look  for  instances  of  antithesis  and  climax  in  the  following 
selection.  Point  out  the  corresponding  words,  phrases,  and  clauses. 
Does  the  thought  in  every  case  correspond  to  the  form  ? 

There  is  indeed  a  remarkable  coincidence  between  the 
progress  of  the  art  of  war,  and  that  of  the  art  of  oratory, 
among  the  Greeks.     They  both  advanced  to  perfection  by 


450  FIGURES   OF  SPEECH. 

contemporaneous  steps,  and  from  similar  causes.  The  early 
speakers,  like  the  early  warriors  of  Greece,  were  merely  a 
militia.  It  was  found  that  in  both  employments  practice 
and  discipline  gave  superiority.  Each  pursuit,  therefore, 
became  first  an  art,  and  then  a  trade.  In  proportion  as  the 
professors  of  each  became  more  expert  in  their  particular 
craft,  they  became  less  respectable  in  their  general  charac- 
ter. Their  skill  had  been  obtained  at  too  great  expense 
to  be  employed  only  from  disinterested  views.  Thus,  the 
soldiers  forgot  that  they  were  citizens,  and  the  orators 
that  they  were  statesmen.  I  know  not  to  what  Demos- 
thenes and  his  famous  contemporaries  can  be  so  justly 
compared  as  to  those  mercenary  troops  who,  in  their  time, 
overran  Greece ;  or  those  who,  from  similar  causes,  were 
some  centuries  ago  the  scourge  of  the  Italian  republics, — 
perfectly  acquainted  with  every  part  of  their  profession, 
irresistible  in  the  field,  powerful  to  defend  or  to  destroy,  but 
defending  without  love,  and  destroying  without  hatred. 
We  may  despise  the  characters  of  these  political  Condottieri ; 
but  it  is  impossible  to  examine  the  system  of  their  tactics 
without  being  amazed  at  its  perfection. 

B.  Find  five  good  examples  of  antithesis  and  as  many  of  climax 
in  some  of  the  selections  in  the  preceding  or  following  pages. 

Figures  of  Contradiction. 

178.  Anticlimax.  —  This  is  a  form  of  climax  in  which 
the  last  term  of  the  series,  although  surpassing  the 
preceding  terms  in  intensity,  is  yet  absurdly  incongru- 
ous with  them,  the  effect  aimed  at  being  a  shock  of 
humorous  surprise. 

The  Chief -Justice  was  rich,  quiet,  and  infamous. 

—  Mac  AULA  Y :  Warren  Hastings. 


FIGURES   OF  CONTRADICTION.  451 

Irony,  —  An  ironical  expression  is  one  in  which  the 
words  of  the  speaker  seem  to  mean  one  thing,  but  in 
reality  mean  just  the  contrary,  the  real  meaning  being 
conveyed  to  us  by  the  tone  of  the  voice  or  the  rhythm 
and  suggestiveness  of  the  words.  Thus  Addison,  in  the 
following  passage,  under  guise  of  praising  bribery  as  an 
efficient  means  of  persuasion,  in  reality  holds  it  up  to 
condemnation :  — 

There  is  another  way  of  reasoning  which  seldom  fails, 
though  it  be  of  a  quite  different  nature  from  that  I  have 
last  mentioned.  I  mean  convincing  a  man  by  ready  money, 
or,  as  it  is  ordinarily  called,  bribing  a  man  to  an  opinion. 
This  method  has  often  proved  successful  when  all  the  others 
have  been  made  use  of  to  no  purpose.  A  man  who  is 
furnished  with  arguments  from  the  mint  will  convince  the 
antagonist  much  sooner  than  one  who  draws  them  from 
reason  and  philosophy.  Gold  is  a  wonderful  clearer  of  the 
understanding;  it  dissipates  every  doubt  and  scruple  in  an 
instant;  accommodates  itself  to  the  meanest  capacities; 
silences  the  loud  and  clamorous,  and  brings  over  the  most 
obstinate  and  inflexible.  —  Addison  :  Spectator^  No.  239. 

Epigram.  —  According  to  Professor  Bain,  an  epigram 
is  ''an  apparent  contradiction  in  language,  which,  by 
causing  a  temporary  shock,  rouses  our  attention  to  some 
important  meaning  underneath."  This  definition  may 
be  supplemented  by  the  statement  that  the  epigram 
usually  takes  the  form  of  a  brief,  pointed,  antithetical 
sentence. 

Let  us  be  of  good  cheer,  however,  remembering  that  the 
misfortunes  hardest  to  bear  are  those  which  never  come. 

—  Lowell  :  Democracy. 
There  is  nothing  new,  except  what  is  forgotten. 


452  FIGURES   OF  SPEECH. 

Hyperbole,  —  This  is  a  kind  of  a  metaphor  in  which 
the  object  spoken  of  is  greatly  exaggerated  in  size  or 
importance  for  purpose  of  emphasis  or  humor. 

Falstaff  sweats  to  death, 
And  lards  the  lean  earth  as  he  walks  along. 

—  Shakespeare  :  Henry  IV. 

And  panting  Time  toiled  after  him  in  vain. 
—  Johnson:  Prologue  on  the  Opening  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre. 

Interrogation.  —  Attention  is  sometimes  called  to  an 
important  assertion  or  denial  by  throwing  it  into  the 
form  of  a  question  or  challenge  to  which  no  answer  is 
expected.  This  figure  is  known  as  interrogation,  or 
the  rhetorical  question.  It  resembles  irony  in  that  the 
form  of  the  question  is  the  opposite  of  the  meaning  it 
is  intended  to  convey. 

Much  depends  on  when  and  where  you  read  a  book.  In 
the  five  or  six  impatient  minutes,  before  the  dinner  is  quite 
ready,  who  would  think  of  taking  up  the  Faerie  Queene  for 
a  stop-gap,  or  a  volume  of  Bishop  Andre wes'  sermons  ? 

—  Lamb  :   Tlioughts  on  Books  and  Reading. 

As  I  crossed  the  bridge  over  the  Avon  on  my  return,  I 
paused  to  contemplate  the  distant  church  in  which  the  poet 
lies  buried,  and  could  not  but  exult  in  the  malediction  which 
has  kept  his  ashes  undisturbed  in  its  quiet  and  hallowed 
vaults.  What  honor  could  his  name  have  derived  from 
being  mingled  in  dusty  companionship  with  the  epitaphs 
and  escutcheons  and  venal  eulogiums  of  a  titled  multitude  ? 

—  Irving  :  Sketch-Book,  Stratford-on-Avon. 

179.  General  Assignments. 

A.  Examine  one  of  your  old  essays.  How  many  figures  did 
you  use?     What  kinds  of  figures  were  they ? 


GENERAL   ASSIGNMENTS.  453 

B.  Read  Webster's  First  Bunker  Hill  Oration  and  take  note 
of  each  figure  used.  What  do  you  conclude  is  Webster's  favorite 
figure  of  speech  ? 

C.  Read  a  page  of  one  of  Shakespeare's  plays  and  select  three 
of  the  most  striking  figures.  To  what  class  or  classes  do  they  be- 
long? 

D.  What  figures  do  you  find  in  the  following  passages  ?  Are 
they  good  figures?    What  pictures  do  they  bring  up  in  your  mind  ? 

Michel  de  Bourges  seriously  objected.  My  instinct  was 
to  begin  at  once,  his  advice  was  to  wait  and  see.  .  .  .  We 
should  not  carry  the  people  with  us  in  the  first  moment. 
Let  us  leave  the  indignation  to  increase  little  by  little  in 
their  hearts.  If  it  were  begun  prematurely,  our  manifesta- 
tion would  miscarry.  These  were  the  sentiments  of  all. 
For  myself,  while  listening  to  them,  I  felt  shaken.  Perhaps 
they  were  right.  It  would  be  a  mistake  to  give  the  signal 
for  the  combat  in  vain.  Of  what  use  is  the  lightning  that 
is  not  followed  by  the  thunderbolt  ? 

Louis  Bonaparte  is  a  rebel,  he  has  steeped  himself  to-day 
in  every  crime.  We,  representatives  of  the  people,  declare 
him  an  outlaw;  but  there  is  no  need  for  our  declaration, 
since  he  is  an  outlaw  by  the  mere  fact  of  his  treason. 
Citizens,  you  have  two  hands ;  take  in  one  your  Right,  and 
in  the  other  your  gun,  and  fall  upon  Napoleon. 


APPENDIX   A. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  WRITTEN  WORK. 

1.  Use  only  black  ink,  the  blacker  the  better. 

2.  Write  on  one  side  of  the  sheet  only. 

3.  Leave  the  margin  blank  for  the  teacher's  corrections. 

4.  Write  as  legibly  as  you  can,  avoiding  flourishes  and  curlicues. 

5.  Put  the  title  on  the  first  line,  and  to  show  what  it  is,  under- 
line it  with  three  straight  lines  or  one  wavy  line.  Leave  one  blank 
line  between  the  title  and  the  body  of  the  essay. 

6.  By  taking  pains  as  you  write,  avoid  the  necessity  of  eras- 
ures and  interlineations.  If  corrections  must  be  made,  make  them 
neatly.  To  strike  out  a  word  draw  a  horizontal  line  through  it, 
but  do  not  enclose  it  in  parentheses.  In  making  additions,  use 
the  caret. 

7.  Indent  for  a  paragraph  at  least  one  inch.  Beware  of  indent- 
ing where  no  paragraph  is  intended. 

8.  Except  at  the  end  of  a  paragraph,  avoid  a  noticeable  blank 
space  at  the  end  of  a  sentence. 

9.  Leave  the  sheets  of  your  manuscript  flat.  Do  not  fold  them ; 
do  not  fasten  them  together,  or  turn  down  the  corners ;  above  all, 
do  not  roll  them. 

10.  Write  your  name  and  the  number  of  the  page  in  the  upper 
right-hand  corner  of  each  sheet. 

11.  In  making  an  outline,  or  skeleton,  or  analysis,  follow  the 
form  of  outline  given  on  page  31  of  this  book.  Do  not  disfigure 
the  page  by  using  "  braces." 

12.  Locate  your  quotations  by  giving  the  author's  name,  the 
name  of  the  book,  the  number  of  the  volume,  and  the  page. 

454 


APPENDIX  B. 

CAPITALS  AND  PUNCTUATION. 

General  Rules  for  Capitals. 

The  following  words  should  begin  with  capitals :  — 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  and  paragraph. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period  ;  and,  usually,  after  the  interro- 
gation point  and  the  exclamation  point. 

3.  Divine  names;  as,  God,  Jehovah,  the  Supreme  Being. 

4.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  rivers,  oceans,  ships;  as, 
Franklin,  Chicago,  Mississippi,  Atlantic,  the  Monitor. 

5.  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  places ;  as, 
English,  French,  Roman,  American. 

6.  The  first  word  of  an  exact  quotation  in  a  direct  form ;  as,  he 
said,  "  There  will  be  war." 

7.  The  pronoun  I  and  the  interjection  O ! 

8.  Terms  of  great  historical  importance  are  usually  capitalized; 
as,  the  Reformation,  the  Civil  War,  the  Whigs,  the  Revolution. 

General  Rules  for  Punctuation. 

The  comma,  semicolon,  and  colon  mark  the  three  degrees  of 
separation  in  the  parts  of  a  sentence;  the  comma  the  smallest 
degree,  the  semicolon  a  greater  degree,  and  the  colon  the  greatest 
degree.     To  illustrate  :  — 

Rhetoric  is  based  upon  Logic,  Grammar,  and  ^Esthetics. 

Rhetoric  is  based  upon  Logic,  which  deals  with  the  laws  of 
thought;  upon  Grammar,  which  presents  the  facts  and  rules  of 
correct  language;  and  upon  ^Esthetics,  which  investigates  the 
principles  of  beauty. 

455 


456  WRITTEN    WORK. 

Rhetoric  is  based  upon  the  following  sciences:  Logic,  which 
deals  with  the  laws  of  thought ;  Grammar,  which  presents  the 
facts  and  rules  of  correct  language ;  and  ^Esthetics,  which  investi- 
gates the  principles  of  beauty. 

Rules  for  the  Comma. 

A  comma  is  used  in  the  following  instances  :  — 

1.  To  separate  grammatically  independent  elements  from  the 
context ;  as,  "  Rejoice,  young  man  !  " 

2.  To  separate  intermediate,  transposed,  and  parenthetical  ele- 
ments from  the  context ;  as,  "  Even  good  men,  they  say,  sometimes 
act  like  brutes." 

3.  To  separate  expressions  in  apposition  from  the  context ;  as, 
"  Washington,  the  first  President,  served  tw^o  terms." 

4.  To  separate  contrasted  words  or  phrases,  and  words  or 
phrases  in  pairs;  as,  "We  live  in  deeds,  not  years."  "Sink  or 
swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my  hand  and  my  heart 
to  this  vote." 

5.  To  mark  the  omission  of  words ;  as,  "  In  war  he  was  warlike ; 
in  peace,  peaceable." 

6.  Before  short  and  informal  quotations ;  as,  "  He  shouted, 
<  Come  in  ! '  " 

Note. —  It  is  quite  possible  to  use  the  comma  too  frequently;  as,  "It 
is  well  known,  that,  when  water  is  cooled,  below  a  certain  point,  contrac- 
tion ceases,  and  expansion  begins."  Better :  "It  is  well  known  that  when 
water  is  cooled  below  a  certain  point,  contraction  ceases  and  expansion 
begins." 

Rules  for  the  Semicolon. 

A  semicolon  is  used  in  the  following  instances :  — 

1.  To  separate  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  when  they 
are  complex  or  loosely  connected,  or  when  they  contain  commas. 

2.  To  separate  short  sentences  closely  connected  in  meaning. 

3.  To  introduce  an  example,  before  as. 

4.  To  separate  clauses  having  a  common  dependence.  Illustra- 
tions of  these  rules :  "  Science  declares  that  no  particle  of  matter 


PUNCTUATION,  457 

can  be  destroyed;  that  each  atom  has  its  place  in  the  universe; 
and  that,  in  seeking  that  place,  each  obeys  certain  fixed  laws." 
"  When  education  shall  be  made  a  qualification  for  suffrage ;  when 
politicians  shall  give  place  to  statesmen  ;  —  then,  and  not  till  then, 
will  the  highest  development  of  our  country  be  reached." 

Rules  for  the  Colon. 
The  colon  is  used  in  the  following  instances  :  — 

1.  To  introduce  several  particulars  complex  in  form,  in  apposi- 
tion to  a  general  term,  and  separated  from  one  another  by  semi- 
colons.    (Already  illustrated.) 

2.  To  introduce  long  formal  quotations.  If  the  quotation  begins 
a  new  paragraph  a  dash  should  be  used  instead  of  a  colon. 

Rules  for  the  Period. 

The  period  is  used  in  the  following  instances  :  — 

1.  To  mark  the  completion  of  a  declarative  sentence. 

2.  After  abbreviations  ;  as,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Vt.,  Ala. 

Rules  for  the  Interrogation  Point. 

The  interrogation  point  is  used 

1.  After  every  direct  question ;  as,  '^  Will  you  come  ?  "  "  You 
have  been  to  Niagara?  "  "  When  was  such  a  promise  made?  By 
whom  ?  " 

2.  In  parentheses,  to  express  doubt ;  as,  "  In  the  time  of  Homer, 
850  (?)  B.C." 

Rules  for  the  Exclamation  Point. 

The  exclamation  point  is  used 

1.  To  expreas  strong  emotion ;  as,  "  He  is  dead,  the  sweet 
musician ! " 

2.  To  express  doubt  or  sarcasm  ;  as,  "  That  man  a  poet !  " 

3.  After  interjections ;  as,  "  Oh  !  "     "  O  my  Country ! " 


APPENDIX   C. 

COMMON  FAULTS,  WITH   MARKS   USED   IN   CORRECT- 
ING THEM. 

a.    In  the  MS. 

The  words,  clauses,  or  sentences  to  which  the  marginal  correc- 
tions refer,  are  indicated  by  crossing  out,  by  underscoring,  or  by 
enclosing  in  brackets  or  circles.  A  caret  shows  the  point  at  which 
something  is  to  be  supplied.  An  inverted  caret  marks  the  omis- 
sion of  the  apostrophe  or  of  quotation  marks. 

5.    In  the  Margin. 

Amb.  — Ambiguous.     Capable  of  more  than  one  interpretation. 

(1)  JSquinting  construction. 

When  a  phrase  or  clause  is  so  placed  that  it  may 
equally  well  be  understood  to  refer  to  what  precedes  it 
and  to  what  follows  it,  it  is  said  to  squint. 

(2)  Participle  for  clause. 

Supplant  a  participle  by  a  clause  whenever  more  than 
one  interpretation  is  possible.  Example  :  "  Situated  only 
a  few  miles  from  St:  Paul,  Minneapolis  has  grown  with 
marvellous  rapidity."  Write  either  "  Because  it  is  situ- 
ated," or  "  Although  it  is  situated,"  according  to  the 
meaning  intended. 

(3)  Misrelated  participle. 

The  grammatical  relation  of  the  participle  to  the  rest 

of  the  sentence  should  not  be  left  in  doubt.     Examples : 

"  Having  dared  to  take  up  the  cause  of  the  abolitionists 

his  friends  would  no  longer  consort  openly  with  him." 

458 


MARKS    USED  IN  CORRECTING.  459 

Does  "having  dared"  belong  with  "friends"  or  with 
"  him  "  ?  "  Looking  across  the  bay  a  large  ocean  steamer 
was  seen  headed  directly  for  the  harbor."  To  what  word 
does  the  participle  "  looking  "  belong  ? 

Ant.  — Antecedent  needs  Attention.     (An  antecedent  is  any  expres- 
sion to  which  subsequent  reference  is  made.) 

(1)  Two  or  more  possible  antecedents. 

Be  sure  that  the  antecedent  to  which  a  relative  pro- 
noun refers  is  clear  and  unmistakable. 

(2)  JVb  antecedent. 

Guard  against  using  a  relative  clause  that  has  no 
antecedent. 

(3)  Relative  and  antecedent  do  not  agree. 

Singular  antecedents  require  singular  pronouns  of  ref- 
erence ;  relative  and  antecedent  should  agree  in  number. 
"  He  is  one  of  those  men  who  disapproves  of  every  new 
idea,"  should  be  "  He  is  one  of  those  men  who  disapprove,'^ 
etc.  "Everybody  votes  according  to  their  own  convic- 
^  tions,"  should  be  "  Everybody  votes  according  to  his  own 
convictions." 

(4)  Repeat  the  antecedent. 

Repeat  an  idea  when  the  relative  pronoun  alone  is  not 
sufficient  for  clearness.  "  His  opponents  were  at  this  time 
involved  in  expensive  litigation,  which  partly  accounts  for 
the  feebleness  of  their  opposition."  The  meaning  proba- 
bly is  "  a  circumstance  which  partly  accounts  for,"  etc. 

Awk.  —  Awkward.     An  ungainly  mode  of   expression ;    a    harsh 
sound. 

Cap.  —  Capitalize. 

CI.  —  Not  Clear,  Vague,  Obscure,  Indefinite. 

(1)  Omission  of  necessary  ivord  or  ivords. 

(2)  Word  or  idea  needs  to  be  7'epeated. 

(3)  Confusion  of  ideas. 


460  •       COMMON  FAULTS. 

Cnst.  —  Construction  Faulty. 

(1)  Wrong  construction. 

Examples  :  "  He  found  that  going  to  school  was  differ- 
ent than  (say  from  what)  he  expected."  "  My  principal 
had  forfeited  the  privilege  to  choose  (say  of  choosing)  his 
own  weapons." 

(2)  Unexpected  change  of  construction. 

In  similar  parts  of  the  sentence  use  the  same  construc- 
tion. Do  not  say,  "  I  prefer  choosing  my  own  friends  and 
to  carry  out  my  own  plans,"  but  either,  "  I  prefer  choosing 
my  own  friends  and  carrying  out  my  own  plans,"  or  "  I 
prefer  to  choose  my  own  friends  and  to  carry  out  my  own 
plans." 

(3)  Awkward  construction. 

Avoid  awkward  constructions,  such  as,  "  She  inquired 
of  the  Superintendent  as  to  the  probability  of  her  brother's 
suspension  from  the  school "  (better,  "  She  asked  the  Su- 
perintendent if  her  brother  was  likely  to  be  suspended 
from  the  school ").  "  Their  destination  was  arrived  at  by 
them  by  daybreak  "  ("  By  daybreak  they  arrived  at  their 
destination"). 

(4)  Involved  clauses. 

Beware  of  involved  clauses.     ("  He  said  that  he  was 
sure  that  the  story  that  the  boy  had  run  away,  was  false.") 
Coh.  —  Not  coherent.     S.  Coh.,  sentence  lacks  coherence.     ^  Coh., 
paragraph  lacks  coherence.     C.  Coh.,  the  whole  composi- 
tion lacks  coherence. 

Con.  —  Connection  Faulty. 

(1)  Means  of  explicit  reference  (conjunctions,  demonstra- 
tives, modifications  of  sentence-structure)  not  skillfully  man- 
aged. 

(2)  Wrong  conjunction  used. 

Distinguish  different  degrees  and  different  kinds  of 
connection  in  such  words  as  yet^  stilly  hut,  however,  and,  so, 


MARKS    USED   IN  CORBECTING.  461 

while,  whereas,  even,  together,  with,  since,  hence,  because,  for, 
etc. 

(3)  Connectives  used  where  they  can  be  omitted. 

Connectives  may  sometimes  be  omitted  with  a  gain  to 
force.  Thus  it  is  less  forcible  to  say  "  Run  and  tell  your 
father  the  house  is  on  fire,"  than  to  say  "  Run !  Tell  your 
father  the  house  is  on  fire." 

(4)  Transitional  phrase  or  sentence  needed. 

Short  summarizing  phrases  or  sentences  may  be  needed, 
at  times,  to  indicate  the  direction  which  the  thought  is 
next  to  take,  or  the  manner  of  treatment  to  be  pursued. 

(5)  Illogical  sequence. 

Cond.  —  Condense. 

Consult.  —  Bring  the  composition  to  the  teacher  before  the  next 
recitation. 

D.  —  See  the  Dictionary,  for  spelling,  etymology,  meaning,  or  stand- 

ing of  the  word  underlined. 

E.  — Bad  English. 

(1)  Diction  impure,  inaccurate,  or  unidiomatic. 

(2)  Construction  borrowed  from  some  other  language. 

Eu.  —  Euphony  Violated.     Sounds  bad. 

Exp.  —  Expand.     Idea  important;  make  more  of  it. 

Fig.  — Error  in  the  Use  of  Figurative  Language.     Mixed  metaphor ; 
or  obscure  allusion  ;  or  figure  not  needed. 

FW.  — '  Fine  Writing. ' 

The  attempt  to  give  a  commonplace  idea  dignity  and 
force,  or  humor,  by  the  use  of  big  words  and  pretentious 
phrases,  is  termed  '  fine  writing.'  Thus  "  An  individual 
designated  by  the  not  uncommon  cognomen  of  Smith" 
is  *  fine  writing '  for  "  a  man  named  Smith." 

6r.  —  Bad  Grammar. 


462  COMMON  FAULTS, 

H.  —  Heading  at  Fault.     'No  heading ;    poor  heading  ;    prescribed 
form  not  observed. 

Inv.  —  Involved  Structure.     Simplify. 

Kp.  —  Out  of  Keeping. 

(1)  To7ie  of  the  composition  not  consistently  maintained. 

At  no  point  should  the  composition  vary  perceptibly 
from  the  level  of  thought  or  feeling  on  which  it  was  begun. 
A  commonplace  or  colloquial  remark  in  a  composition 
whose  prevailing  tone  is  pathetic,  a  jest  or  a  piece  of  slang 
in  a  composition  whose  prevailing  note  is  spiritual,  are 
often  ruinous  to  the  effect  that  would  otherwise  be  pro- 
duced. 

(2)  In  bad  taste. 

I.e.  —  Change  Capital  to  Small  Letter. 

MS.  —  Manuscript   Unsatisfactory.     (1)  In   form.     (2)  Not    neat. 
(3)  Writing  hard  to  read. 

p.  —  Bad  Punctuation. 

See  Appendix  A. 

Pos.  —  Wrong  Position. 

(1)  Related  words  separated. 

Related  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  should  be  brought 
as  close  as  possible  to  the  elements  which  they  modify. 

(2)  Important  words  in  unemphatic  positiojis. 

Important  words  should  occupy^  emphatic  positions. 

(3)  Unimportant  ivords  in  emphatic  positions. 

Q.  —  Quotation  at  Fault.     (1)  Quotation  incorrect.     (2)  Incorrect 
use  of  quotation  marks. 

Re.  —  Repetition  to  be  Avoided. 

Avoid  needless  repetitions  of  the  same  word  or  soun^. 


MARKS   USED  IN  CORRECTING.  463 

Rel.  —  Relative  Pronoun  at  Fault. 

(1)  Coordinate  for  restrictive  relative,  or  vice  versa,  i.e. 
who,  ivhich,  for  that;  or  that  for  who,  which. 

(2)  Relative  may  he  omitted. 

The  restrictive  relative,  when  the  object  of  a  verb, 
may  often  be  omitted  without  loss  of  clearness.  Thus, 
"  I  am  the  man  you  seek  "  is  sometimes  preferable  to  "  I 
am  the  man  that  you  seek." 

Sent.  —  Wrong  Form  of  Sentence. 

(1)  Periodic  for  loose  sentence,  or  vice  versa. 

(2)  Monotonous  recwTence  of  the  same  form  of  sentence. 
Beware  especially  of  overuse  of  and,  and,  and. 

SL  — Slang. 

Sp.  —  Bad  Spelling;  or  omission  of  apostrophe,  or  faulty  abbre- 
viation, or  spell  in  full. 

Sub.  —  Subordination  Faulty.  (1)  Ideas  of  unequal  rank  made 
coordinate.  Subordinate  the  expression  underscored. 
(2)  Expression  too  emphatic.  (3)  Wrong  idea  subor- 
dinated.    Recast  the  sentence. 

T.  —  Tautology,  useless  repetition. 

Tr.  —  Transpose. 

Ts.  —  Wrong  Tense. 

U.  —  Unity  Violated.  Su.,  in  the  sentence ;  Tfu.,  in  the  paragraph  ; 
Cu.,  in  the  whole  composition. 

(1)  Sentence  contains  unrelated  ideas  or  too  many  ideas. 

(2)  Clauses  appended  or  not  properly  subordinated. 

Appended  phrases  and  clauses  should  be  reduced  to 
inconspicuous  forms  or  transferred  to  inconspicuous  posi- 
tions. Subordinate  details  should  be  kept  subordinate  in 
form  of  statement. 


464  COMMON  FAULTS. 

W.  —  Weak. 

(1)  Terms  too  general. 

Use  particular  and  concrete  expressions. 

(2)  Anti-climax, 

(3)  Hackneyed  words  or  phrases. 

Avoid  trite  and  meaningless  expressions. 

IF        —  Paragraph. 

No  ^  —  Do  not  paragraph. 

8  or  <|)  —  Omit. 

X         —  Error,  not  specified. 

O       — Join  the  parts  of  a  word,  incorrectly  separated. 

|-|       —  Hyphen  to  be  supplied. 

A        —  Something  has  been  omitted. 

#       —  More  space  needed  at  point  indicated  by  the  caret. 

p        — A  surprising  assertion. 

c.   At  Beginning  or  End  of  the  MS. 

One  of  the  above  marks  placed  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  the 
manuscript  warns  the  writer  against  a  prevailing  fault.  The  gen- 
eral character  of  the  manuscript  is  indicated  by  the  following 
letters :  A,  excellent ;  B,  fair  ;  C,  poor ;  D,  very  bad,  rewrite. 


INDEX. 


The  references  are  to  pages.    Names  of  authors  whose  works  are  quoted  are  in 
Small  Capitals. 


Brtce,  J.,  26,  99,  193,  331. 

Buckley,  A.,  324. 

BuLWER,  E.,  263. 

Burke,  E.,  81,  130,  898. 

Burns,  R.,  4. 

Burroughs,  J.,  15,  134,  168,  170, 

206. 
Byron,  Lord,  205. 


390. 


Abbott,  J.,  35,  311. 

Abbott,  J.  S.  C,  207. 

Abstract  expressions,  177,  178. 

Addison,  J.,  451. 

Aldrich,  T.  B.,  56. 

Alexandrine,  432. 

Alger,  W.  R.,  304.  > 

Allegory,  446. 

Allen,  J.  L.,  176. 

Alliteration,  435. 

Analogy,  331-334. 

Anapest,  431. 

Andrews,  365. 

Anticlimax,  449,  450. 

Antithesis,  448  ;  grouping  by,  30 
31 ;  false,  449. 

Antouomasia,  445. 

Argumentation,  353-420. 

Arguments,  from  authority,  378  ;  !  Channing,  W.  E,,  118. 
tests  of,  387-402  ;    strength  of,  i  Characters,  267-274. 
392-394  ;  order  of,  402,  403. 

Aristotle  on  plot,  262. 

Association,  grouping  by,  29,  30 

Audubon,  J.  J.,  11-14. 

Authority  as  argument,  378  ;  ab- 
sence of,  378. 


Caesura,  434. 

Campbell,  T. 

Canto,  487. 

Capitals,  455. 

Carlyle,  T.,  49,  258,  445. 

Castle,  A.  andE.,  198. 

Cause  and  effect,  development  by, 

99-106  ;  grouping  by,  31,  32. 
Cervantes,  446. 


Bacon,  Lord,  17,  23. 

Bagehot,  W.,  78,  96,  883. 

Ballad,  the,  424. 

Barrie,  J.  M.,  276. 

Bible,  2,  442. 

Biography,  278. 

Black,  W.,  91. 

Blank  verse,  436. 

Boynton,  H.  C,  306. 

Brief,  the,   403-406;    trial  brief, 

416. 
Brown,  John,  87. 
Browning,  R.,  286. 


j  Cherbury,  Lord,  158. 
Chesterfield,  Earl  of,  245. 
Churchill,  W.,  198,  200,  206,  215. 
Circumstance   as  argument,  376 ; 

absence  of,  376. 
Clifford,  W.  K.,  301. 
Climax,  33,  257,  449. 
Collision  in  narrative,  250,  267. 
Comedy,  426,  427. 
Comparison,  331-334. 
Comparison  and  contrast,  72-85. 
Compositions,   gro*wth  of,  20-43; 

planning  of,  21-29. 
Concrete  terms,  178-181. 
Connection,  means  of,  117-124. 
Consistency  in  argument,  398-402. 
Contradictory     ideas     reconciled, 

834-337. 
Contrast,    grouping   by,    80,   31 ; 

development  by,  72-85. 


465 


466 


INDEX. 


Conversation,  274-278. 
Correction  marks,  458-464. 
Couplet,  436. 
Creighton,  J,,  100. 
Crothers,  S.  McC,  326. 

Dactyl,  431. 

Dana,  C.  A.,  111. 

Debates,  practice,  418-420. 

Debates,  preparation  of  material 
for,  414,  415. 

Debating,  informal,  352-407  ;  for- 
mal, 407-420. 

Definition,  logical,  319-328. 

Defoe,  D.,  172. 

Demolins,  E.,  119. 

Description,  174-236. 

Description  in  argument,  361-371. 

DeQuincey,  T.,  119,  129, 196,  338. 

Details  in  description,  203. 

Dialogue,  274-278. 

Dickens,  C,  15,  58,  176,  194, 196, 
197. 

Didactic  poetry,  429,  430. 

Diiierentia,  320. 

Dimeter,  431-433. 

Discourse,  forms  of,  168-420. 

Division,  337-341. 

Dodge,  D.,  339. 

Doubleday,  a.,  234. 

Dramatic  lyric,  429. 

Dramatic  poetry,  425-427. 

Dryden,  J.,  4. 

Echo,  the,  145. 
Eggleston,  E.,  183. 
Elegy,  the,  428. 
Eliot,  George,  186. 
Emerson,  R.  W.,  55,  129,  448. 
Epic,  422-425. 
Epigram,  451. 

Experience,   appeal  to,    as   argu- 
ment, 378. 
Exposition,  301-352. 
Exposition,  types  of,  341-349. 

Fable,  the,  446. 

Fact  as  argument,  375  ;  absence  of, 

375. 
Farce,  427. 


Faults,  common,  458-464. 
Fictitious  narrative,  278. 
Figures  of  speech,  439-453. 
Foot,  defined,  431  ;  dissyllabic  and 

trisyllabic,  431. 
Forms  of  prose  discourse,  168-420. 
Foster,  M.,  101. 

Franklin,  B.,  21,  22,  25,  68,  101. 
Freeman,  E.,  145. 
FrOude,  J.  A.,  48. 

Generalized  narrative,  328-331. 
Genus,  320. 
Gilder,  R.  W.,  438. 
Goldsmith,  O.,  161,  445. 
Grady,  H.  W.,  76,  91. 
Gray,  T.,  195. 
Grayson,  333. 
Grouping  topics,  29-34. 
Guernsey,  A.  H.,  340. 
GuYOT,  A.,  102. 

Hale,  E.  E.,  141,  note. 
Hamerton,  p.  G.,  80,  93. 
Harrington,  Sir  J.,  337. 
Hawthorne,  N.,  197. 
Heptameter,  432." 
Hexameter,  432,  433. 
HiGGiNSON,  T.  W.,  53,   118,  209, 

366. 
History,  278. 
Holland,  J.  G.,  9,  10. 
Holmes,   O.   W.,  55,   64,    81,   88, 

209,  362. 
Hood,  T.,  448. 
Hosmer,  J.  K.,  46. 
Howard,  J.,  131. 
HowELLS,   W.    D.,   75,  369,  373, 

388,  389. 
Hubbard,  W.,  139. 
Hudson,  H.  N.,  392. 
Hudson,  W.  H.,  257,  268. 
Hughes,  T.,  178. 
Huxley,  T.  H.,  76. 
Hyperbole,  452. 

Iambus,  431. 

Idyll,  the,  424. 

Image,  fundamental,  195-203. 

Images,  kinds  of,  177-186. 


INDEX. 


46T 


Incident,  simple,  243-249. 
Instances,    specific,    development 

by,  93-99. 
Interrogation,  452. 
Irony,  451. 
Irving,  W.,  47,  87,  188,  199,  452. 

Jefferies,  J.  R.,  215. 
Jewett,  S..  O.,  211,  214,  239. 
Johnson,  S.,  442. 
Jones,  Sir  W.,  112. 

King,  C,  221. 
Kipling,  R.,  186. 
Knox,  309. 

Lalor  and  Mason,  374. 

Lamb,  C,  54,  452. 

Lincoln,  A.,  127,  164. 

Lines  of  poetry,  pure,  433  ;  mixed, 

433 ;  incomplete,  434. 
Long,  W.  J.,  108,  109. 
Longfellow,  H.  W.,  46,  71,  176, 

198. 
Lowell,  J.  R.,  79,  179,  337,  441, 

446,  451. 
Lyall,  Edna,  238. 
Lyric  poetry,  427-429. 

Macaulay,  T.  B.,  68,  71,  73,  77, 
97,  133,  147,  160,  329,  382,  390, 
441,  442,  443,  450. 

Macdonald,  G.,  182,  183. 

Mahaffy,  J.  P.,  95. 

Manuscript,  preparation  of,  454. 

Mask,  the,  427. 

Mathews,  W.,  307. 

Matthews,  B.,  74,  303,  327. 

Maundeville,  Sir  J.,  7. 

Maupassant,  G.  db,  183,  190,  292. 

Maury,  T.  B.,  341. 

McMaster,  J.  B.,  82,  106. 

Measure,  heroic,  432 ;  Alexan- 
drine, 432. 

Melodrama,  427. 

Metaphor,  440-444  ;  mixed,  444. 

Metonymy,  444-446. 

Metre,  431  ;  kinds  of,  431-435. 

Metrical  romance,  423,  424. 

Miller,  328. 


Mock  epic,  423. 
Monometer,  431-433. 
Montgomery,  D.  H.,  102. 
Motives  in  narrative,  268. 

Narration,  237-300  ;  in  exposition, 
361-371. 

Narrative,  complex,  249-278  ;  gen- 
eralized, 328-331. 

Newman,  Cardinal,  142. 

Newton,  L,  441. 

Observation,  order  of,  191-195. 
Obstacle,  the,  in   narrative,  250, 

254. 
Octameter,  432,  433. 
Ode,  the,  428. 
Opera,  427. 
Ottava  rima,  437. 

Paine,  R.  D.,  333. 

Parable,  the,  446. 

Paragraphs,  44-124. 

Particulars  and  details,  develop- 
ment by,  85-98. 

Pascal,  449. 

Pastoral,  the,  424. 

Pater,  W.,  127. 

Pentameter,  432. 

Pepys,  S.,  279. 

Pertinence,  tests  of  arguments  for, 
387-392. 

Planning  compositions,  21-29. 

Plot,  250,  255-265. 

Plutarch,  448. 

Poe,  E.  a.,  181,  189. 

Poetry,  421-438. 

Point  of  view,  186-190. 

Points  at  issue,  416. 

Principle,  general,  as  argument, 
379-381.      . 

Pronoun,  relative,  156. 

Proof,  direct  and  indirect,  355. 

Proposition,  the,  371-375. 

Propositions,  debatable,  413,  414. 

Prose  discourse,  forms  of,  168-420. 

Punctuation,  465-457. 

"Q"  (A.  T.  Quiller-Couch), 
204,  207,  270. 


468 


INDEX. 


Quatrain,  436. 

Randolph,  J.,  160. 

Reade,  Charles,  282. 

Rebuttal,  419. 

Refutation,  365. 

Repetition,  development  by,  64-72. 

Rhetorical  question,  452. 

Rhyme,  435. 

Rhyme  Royal,  437. 

Rogers,  S.,  337. 

Romance,  metrical,  423. 

Satire,  429. 
Scansion,  433. 

SCHMITZ,  364. 

Scott,  Sir  W.,  101. 

Sentences,  126-151 ;  complex  and 

compound,  126  ;  long  and  short, 

128-130;    loose,   periodic,    and 

balanced,  130-135  r  related,  8. 
Seward,  W.  H.,  166,  note. 
Shakespeare,   W.,  24,  202,  284, 

318,  444,  445,  449. 
Shall  and  Will,  165. 
Shorthouse,  J.,  159. 
Simile,  441-444. 
Song,  the,  428. 
Sonnet,  the,  437,  438. 
Spangenberg, 340. 
Specific  expressions,  177,  178. 
Specific    instances,    development 

by,  93-99. 
Specific    instances    as    argument, 

377  ;  absence  of,  377. 
Stanza,    436  ;     Chaucerian,    437  ; 

Elegiac,  436  ;  Spenserian,  437. 
Stevenson,  R.  L.,  128,  199,  200, 

201,  211,  251,  256,  265,  307. 
Strength,  tests  of  arguments  for, 

392-398. 


Suspense,  249,  260. 
Synecdoche,  444-446. 

Tale,  the,  424. 

Tennyson,  A.,  63,  336,  337,  445. 

Tercet,  436. 

Tests  of  arguments,  387-402. 

Tetrameter,  431-433. 

Thackeray,  W.  M.,  2, 53, 206, 242, 

324. 
Thanet,  0.,  86,  244. 
That,  Who,  Which,  156. 
Theory,  general,  arguments  based 

on,  379-381. 
Thoreau,  H.  D.,  96,  175. 
Topic  statement,  45. 
Topics,  overlapping,  34. 
Tragedy,  425,  426. 
Trimeter,  431-433. 
Triplet,  436. 
Trochee,  431. 
Twain,  Mark,  197. 
Tyndall,  J.,  97. 

Units,  independent,  1-7  ;  related, 

7-19. 
Units  of  composition,  1-19. 

Verse,  blank,  436. 
Versification,  431. 

Walker,  F.  A.,  67. 
Webster,  D.,  69,70. 
Wheeler,  C,  309. 
Which,  Who,  That,  156. 
White,  G.,  246. 
Whitman,  W.,  6. 
Who,  Which,  That,  156. 
Will  and  Shall,  165. 
Words,  162-167. 
Wordsworth,  W.,  116,  441. 
Written  work,  directions  for,  454. 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 
University  of  California  Library 
or  to  the 
NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
BIdg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station  9 

University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

•  2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 
(510)642-6753 

•  1  -year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing 
books  to  NRLF 

•  Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4 
days  prior  to  due  date. 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


SEP  $  0 1998 


MAR  0  9  2000 


JUL  1  3  2005 


12,000(11/95) 


YB  36%S 

U.C.BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


co^3^^b^lD 


544:186 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


